Sorensen Solar Energy Storage

1. Auflage 2015
ISBN: 978-0-12-409549-6
Verlag: Academic Press
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 394 Seiten, Format (B × H): 152 mm x 229 mm

While solar is the fastest-growing energy source in the world, key concerns around solar power's inherent variability threaten to de-rail that scale-up . Currently, integration of intermittent solar resources into the grid creates added complication to load management, leading some utilities to reject it altogether, while other operators may penalize the producers via rate increases or force solar developers to include storage devices on-site to smooth out power delivery at the point of production. However these efforts at mitigation unfold, it is increasingly clear to parties on all sides that energy storage will be pivotally important in the drive to boost the integration of variable renewable sources into power infrastructures across the globe. Thoughtfully implemented storage technologies can reduce peak demand, improve day-to-day reliability, provide emergency power in case of interrupted generation, reduce consumer and utility costs by easing load balance challenges, decrease emissions, and increase the amount of distributed and renewable energy that makes it into the grid. While energy storage has long been an area of concern for scientists and engineers, there has been no comprehensive single text covering the storage methods available to solar power producers, which leaves a lamentable gap in the literature core to this important field. Solar Energy Storage aims to become the authoritative work on the topic, incorporating contributions from an internationally recognized group of top authors from both industry and academia, focused on providing information from underlying scientific fundamentals to practical applications, and emphasizing the latest technological developments driving this discipline forward. - Expert contributing authors explain current and emergent storage technologies for solar, thermal, and photovoltaic applications - Sheds light on the economic status of solar storage facilities, including case studies of the particular challenges that solar energy systems present to remote locations - Includes information on: chemical storage mechanisms, mechanical storage tactics, pumped hydro, thermal storage, and storage strategies for systems of all sizes-from centralized utilities to distributed generation

Professor Emeritus at the Department of People and Technology, and a professor of physics at the Institute of Mathematics and Physics, both at Roskilde University, Denmark. He is also an independent consultant at Novator Advanced Technology Consulting. Bent Sørensen's research is cross-disciplinary and has resulted in nearly a thousand scientific articles and some 40 books, including foundation work in economic theory (the scenario method, life-cycle analysis) and in energy research (renewable energy resources, technology and applications). Dr. Sørensen is one of the world's leading specialists in renewable energy. He has five decades of experience in researching the field, and has published hundreds of monographs, articles in scientific journals, technical reports, and conference contributions. He has received several awards and has been knighted by Her Majesty Queen Margrethe of Denmark. He has worked at universities in Japan, France, Denmark, Australia and the United States (Berkeley and Yale), has been a consultant to governments and international organizations, a lead author in the IPCC climate assessment recipient of several international prizes and honors.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Sorensen, Bent

Fachgebiete

• Technische Wissenschaften Energietechnik | Elektrotechnik Solarenergie, Photovoltaik
• Technische Wissenschaften Energietechnik | Elektrotechnik Energieumwandlung, Energiespeicherung

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1.Introduction and overview Bent Sørensen

Solar energy storage options 2.Solar electric energy storage Yulong Ding, Yongliang Li, Chuanping Liu, Ze Sun 3.Innovative systems for storage of thermal solar energy in buildings Lingai Luo, Nolwenn le Pierrès 4.Assessment of electrical storage systems F. Rahman, M. Baseer, S. Rehman 5.Storage of solar thermal energy with consideration of geographical and climatic boundary conditions Roman Marx 6.Sorption heat storage H. A. Zondag 7.Energetic complementarity: hydropower and the possibilities of energy storage in batteries and water reservoirs Alexandre Beluco, Paulo de Souza, Flávio Livi, Johann Caux 8.Revitalization of hydro energy: A new approach to storage of solar energy Zvonimir Glasnovic, Karmen Margeta

Economic assessment of solar storage 9.Photovoltaics and storage plants: Efficient capacities in a system view Benjamin Böcker, Bjarne Steffen, Christoph Weber 10.Economics of solar PV systems with storage, in main grid and mini-grid settings Iain MacGill, Muriel Watt Environmental and social impacts 11.Environmental issues associated with solar electric and thermal systems with storage Bent Sørensen 12.Consumer perceptions of PV systems with energy storage Naoye Abe, Junichiro Ishio, Teppei Katatani, Toshihiro Mukai

Special case studies 13.Photovoltaic energy storage system for remote small islands J. Kaldellis 14.Solar thermal energy storage for solar cookers Ashmore Mawire 15.Isolated and mini-grid solar PV systems: Alternative solutions for providing electricity access in remote areas: Case study from Nepal Brijesh Mainali, Ram Dhital

Leseproben

Chapter 2

Solar Electrical Energy Storage

Yulong Ding1; Yongliang Li1; Chuanping Liu2; Ze Sun3    1 School of Chemical Engineering & Birmingham Centre of Energy Storage, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
2 Department of Thermal Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
3 National Engineering Research Centre for Integrated Utilization of Salt Lake Resources, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China

Abstract

Solar power is expected to play an important role in the future electricity supply chain. However, many challenges remain to be overcome. One such challenge is the intermittent nature of the energy source. A potential solution to the challenge is the use of energy storage technologies. This chapter provides an overview of the area, covering technical requirements of solar electrical energy storage, options for the storage technologies, utility-scale and distributed-scale storage technologies, and economic aspects of the storage technologies.

Keywords

Solar electrical power

Energy storage

Utility-scale energy storage

Distributed energy storage

Economics of energy storage

Chapter Outline

2.1 Background   7

2.2 Technical Requirements of a Solar Electrical Energy Storage Facility   8

2.3 Options for Solar Electrical Energy Storage Technologies   10

2.4 Utility-Scale Storage Technologies   12

2.4.1 Pumped-Hydro Storage   12

2.4.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage   13

2.4.3 Thermal Energy Storage   14

2.4.4 Flow Battery   16

2.4.5 Solar Fuels   17

2.5 Distributed Scale Storage Technologies—Rechargeable Batteries   18

2.5.1 Lead-Acid Battery   18

2.5.2 Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-Ion)   19

2.5.3 Nickel-Based Battery   19

2.5.4 Sodium-Sulfur Battery   19

2.5.5 Other Battery Technologies   20

2.6 Economics of Solar Electrical Energy Storage Technologies   20

2.7 Final Remarks   22

References   22

2.1 Background

Modern societies become increasingly dependent on reliable and secure supplies of electricity to underpin economic growth and community prosperity. This makes electricity an important vector in current and future energy systems, with the latter particularly related to electrification of heat and transportation. In the United Kingdom, the current end user demand on electricity accounts for around 18%. Under the Carbon Plan scenarios, this share will increase to 25-31% by 2030 and 33-44% by 2050 (Taylor et al., 2013). Globally, the net electricity generation will increase by 93% in the IEO2013 reference case, from 20.2 trillion kWh in 2010 to 39.0 trillion kWh in 2040 (EIA, 2013). This implies that the world electricity generation will have to rise by 2.2% per year from 2010 to 2040, compared with an average growth of 1.4% per year for all delivered energy sources. Electricity will supply an increased share of the world's total energy demand, and hence become the world's fastest growing form of delivered energy.

Currently, electricity is produced mainly from fossil fuels. However, due to the long-term pernicious effects of greenhouse gas emissions on the environment, the decreased availability of fossil fuel resources, and the growing sense of urgency toward energy security, the use of more and more renewable and environmentally sustainable energy resources is inevitably happening and is expected to be dominant in the foreseeable future. Solar energy is regarded as a leading contender for green energy production. In fact, solar power installations are currently increasing by 40% per year worldwide (Ginley et al., 2008). According to the estimation of Energy Technology Perspectives 2014, solar power could be the dominant source of green energy by 2050 (IEA, 2014).

Solar energy can be converted to electrical energy in two main ways (Li et al., 2012). One is through solar cells (photovoltaic technology), which directly convert the short wave range of solar radiation energy into electrical energy. The other is via an indirect solar thermal route, which converts the solar radiation energy into thermal energy by means of solar collectors or concentrators, which then generates electricity through a conventional thermal cycle. However, sunlight is diffuse and intermittent. Weather conditions also determine the availability; power generation using both the technologies is unpredictable and unreliable. Therefore, substantial use of solar power to meet humanity's needs requires electrical energy storage to ensure a reliable power supply.

2.2 Technical Requirements of a Solar Electrical Energy Storage Facility

Currently, solar cells and solar thermal power systems cover a wide range of applications, from less than 1 W to 100s MW, as shown in Figure 2.1 (Quaschning and Muriel, 2001). It should be noted that solar thermal power plants can only use direct solar irradiance for power generation, while solar cells can convert both direct irradiance and diffuse irradiance. Therefore, solar cells can produce some electricity even with cloud-covered skies, making them applicable even with very low solar irradiation. Generally speaking, solar cells are most suitable for small-scale low-power demands, which are able to operate as standalone systems as well as grid-connected systems, whereas a solar thermal power plant is often a better option for large-scale and grid-connected systems. Due to different applications, there are different configurations to create a solar electricity installation with a solar cell facility, a solar thermal power plant, or both. However, from the role in the electricity supply chain, the installation can be classified into two categories: utility-scale solar electrical facility and distributed solar electrical facility.

Figure 2.1 Operational regime for solar power generation.

Utility-scale solar power generation refers to medium- to large-scale solar energy installations, which can either be thermal power plants or solar cells. These units are designed to generate large amounts of electricity, which require large vacant lands and therefore are located in rural or semi-wild regions. As a result, they are far from end users and have to be physically connected to existing grids at discrete points. With increasing solar electricity penetration, utility-scale energy storage systems are required to provide utility-controlled functions, including long-duration electricity shift and capacity firming. Although there are no recognized standards at present, it is expected that the storage systems should have a maximum power rating of 1-20 MW (charging and discharging) and the ability to store 2-6 h of energy for on-demand delivery to the electric grid (EPRI, 2011). With such capacity, the storage system can provide a tremendous advantage to solar power generation efficiency and production, while lessening the negative effects of solar power generation on the grid. The energy storage systems are also expected to be used as a spinning reserve to delay committing additional fossil fuel power generation units. These imply that the following are required for energy storage systems for utility-scale solar power generation:

• Storage properties—high storage capacity, long charge/discharge times, good partial-load feature, and acceptable round-trip efficiency

• Financial performance—low capital cost, easy to maintain, and environment-friendly

• Other aspects—fast start-up and response for load following

On the other hand, distributed solar power generation refers to small- to medium-scale systems. Such systems are most commonly solar cell based, except for dish/Stirling solar thermal power systems. They are designed to generate moderate amounts of electricity, which require a small amount of land; hence, they can be placed in local electrical distribution systems at both the generation and use points. They could either be stand-alone systems, or they could be used to generate more electrical energy in conjunction with nearby installations. Compared to utility-scale systems, the generated electricity from distributed systems can only be used...

Über Autor(innen)

Sorensen, Bent
Professor Emeritus at the Department of Environmental, Social, and Spatial Change, and a professor of physics at the Institute of Mathematics and Physics, both at Roskilde University, Denmark. He is also an independent consultant at Novator Advanced Technology Consulting. Dr. Sørensen is one of the world's leading specialists in renewable energy. He has five decades of experience in researching the field, and has published hundreds of monographs, articles in scientific journals, technical reports, and conference contributions. He has received several awards and has been knighted by Her Majesty Queen Margrethe of Denmark.