Sillanpää Natural Organic Matter in Water

Characterization and Treatment Methods
1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-12-801719-7
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 382 Seiten

Approximately 77 percent of the freshwater used in the United States comes from surface-water sources and is subject to natural organic matter contamination according to the United States Geological Survey. This presents a distinct challenge to water treatment engineers. An essential resource to the latest breakthroughs in the characterization, treatment and removal of natural organic matter (NOM) from drinking water, Natural Organic Matter in Waters: Characterization and Treatment Methods focuses on advance filtration and treatment options, and processes for reducing disinfection byproducts. Based on the author's years of research and field experience, this book begins with the characterization of NOM including: general parameters, isolation and concentration, fractionation, composition and structural analysis and biological testing. This is followed by removal methods such as inorganic coagulants, polyelectrolytes and composite coagulants. Electrochemical and membranes removal methods such as: electrocoagulation, electrochemical oxidation, microfiltration and ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and membrane fouling. - Covers conventional as well as advanced NOM removal methods - Includes characterization methods of NOM - Explains removal methods such as: removal by coagulation, electrochemical, advanced oxidation, and integrated methods

Mika Sillanpää's research work centers on chemical treatment in environmental engineering and environmental monitoring and analysis. The recent research focus has been on the resource recovery from waste streams. Sillanpää received his M.Sc. (Eng.) and D.Sc. (Eng.) degrees from the Aalto University where he also completed an MBA degree in 2013. Since 2000, he has been a full professor/adjunct professor at the University of Oulu, the University of Eastern Finland, the LUT University, the University of Eastern Finland and the University of Johannesburg.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Sillanpää, Mika

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;NATURAL ORGANIC MATTER IN WATER: Characterization and Treatment Methods;4
3;Copyright;5
4;CONTENTS;6
5;CONTRIBUTORS;10
6;LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS;12
7;Chapter 1 - General Introduction;16
7.1;REFERENCES;27
8;Chapter 2 - Characterization of NOM;32
8.1;2.1 INTRODUCTION;33
8.2;2.2 GENERAL PARAMETERS;36
8.3;2.3 ISOLATION AND CONCENTRATION;38
8.4;2.4 FRACTIONATION;38
8.5;2.5 CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHODS;41
8.6;2.6 SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS;47
8.7;2.7 BIOLOGICAL TESTING;55
8.8;2.8 OTHER CHARACTERIZATION METHODS;56
8.9;2.9 CONCLUSIONS;57
8.10;REFERENCES;59
9;Chapter 3 - NOM Removal by Coagulation;70
9.1;3.1 INTRODUCTION;71
9.2;3.2 ALUMINUM-BASED COAGULANTS;76
9.3;3.3 FERRIC-BASED COAGULANTS;78
9.4;3.4 INORGANIC POLYMER FLOCCULANTS;78
9.5;3.5 ORGANIC POLYELECTROLYTES;81
9.6;3.6 COMPOSITE COAGULANTS;84
9.7;3.7 NOVEL COAGULANTS;86
9.8;3.8 CONCLUSIONS;88
9.9;REFERENCES;90
10;Chapter 4 - NOM Removal by Electrochemical Methods;96
10.1;4.1 INTRODUCTION;97
10.2;4.2 PRINCIPLES OF EC AND EO TECHNOLOGIES;98
10.3;4.3 EC AND EO TECHNOLOGIES IN NOM REMOVAL;107
10.4;4.4 CONCLUSIONS;118
10.5;REFERENCES;120
11;Chapter 5 - Membranes;128
11.1;5.1 INTRODUCTION;129
11.2;5.2 MICROFILTRATION;131
11.3;5.3 ULTRAFILTRATION;132
11.4;5.4 NANOFILTRATION;147
11.5;5.5 REVERSE OSMOSIS;158
11.6;5.6 MEMBRANE FOULING;160
11.7;5.7 CONCLUSIONS;164
11.8;REFERENCES;166
12;Chapter 6 - NOM Removal by Advanced Oxidation Processes;174
12.1;6.1 INTRODUCTION;175
12.2;6.2 AOPS IN NOM REMOVAL;177
12.3;6.3 UV LIGHT BASED APPLICATIONS;178
12.4;6.4 FENTON PROCESSES;185
12.5;6.5 HETEROGENEOUS PHOTOCATALYSIS AND CATALYTIC OXIDATION;195
12.6;6.6 ULTRASOUND IRRADIATION AND E-BEAM IRRADIATION;204
12.7;6.7 CONCLUSIONS;215
12.8;REFERENCES;218
13;Chapter 7 - NOM Removal by Adsorption;228
13.1;7.1 INTRODUCTION;229
13.2;7.2 ADSORPTION;229
13.3;7.3 ADSORBENTS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS;231
13.4;7.4 NOM REMOVAL FROM WATER BY ADSORPTION;233
13.5;7.5 CONCLUSIONS;248
13.6;REFERENCES;248
14;Chapter 8 - Ion Exchange;254
14.1;8.1 INTRODUCTION;255
14.2;8.2 REMOVAL OF NOM FROM WATER BY ION EXCHANGE;257
14.3;8.3 CONCLUSION;264
14.4;REFERENCES;285
15;Chapter 9 - Integrated Methods;290
15.1;9.1 INTRODUCTION;290
15.2;9.2 COUPLING COAGULATION WITH OTHER PROCESSES;290
15.3;9.3 COUPLING MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY WITH OTHER PROCESSES;294
15.4;9.4 CONCLUSIONS;309
15.5;REFERENCES;309
16;BIBLIOGRAPHY;318
17;LIST OF JOURNAL TITLES WITH ABBREVIATIONS;366
18;INDEX;370

Leseproben

Chapter 2

Characterization of NOM

Mika Sillanpää*, Anu Matilainen**,  and Tanja Lahtinen†     *Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT Faculty of Technology, LUT Chemtech, Laboratory of Green Chemistry, Sammonkatu 12, 50130 Mikkeli, Finland     **Finnish Safety and Chemicals Agency, Kalevantie 2, 33100 Tampere, Finland     †University of Jyväskylä, Department of Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Survontie 9 B, 40500 Jyväskylä, Finland

Abstract

Worldwide reports over the last few decades have shown that the amount of natural organic matter (NOM) in surface water is continuously increasing, which has an adverse effect on drinking water purification. For many practical and hygienic reasons, the presence of NOM in drinking water is undesirable. Various technologies have been proposed for NOM removal with varying degrees of success. The properties and amount of NOM, however, can significantly affect the process efficiency. To improve and optimize these processes, it is essential to characterize and quantify NOM at various points during purification and treatment. It is also important to be able to understand and predict the reactivity of NOM or its fractions at different stages of the process. Methods used in the characterization of NOM include resin adsorption, size exclusion chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The NOM in water has been quantified with parameters including ultraviolet and visible, total organic carbon, and specific UV-absorbance. More precise methods for determining NOM structures have been developed recently: pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, multidimensional NMR techniques, and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. This chapter focuses on the methods used for the characterization and quantification of NOM in relation to drinking water treatment.

Keywords

Characterization; Chromatography; Concentration; Fractionation; Natural organic matter (NOM); Spectroscopy

Abbreviations

AFM

   Atomic force microscopy

AOC

   Assimilable organic carbon

AOPs

   Advanced oxidation processes

ATR

   Attenuated total reflectance

BDOC

   Biodegradable dissolved organic carbon

COD

   Chemical oxygen demand

DBP

   Disinfection by-product

DBPFP

   Disinfection by-product formation potential

DOC

   Dissolved organic carbon

EEM

   Excitation–emission matrix

ESI

   Electrospray ionization

FA

   Fulvic acids

FIFFF

   Flow field-flow fractionation

FTICR-MS

   Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry

FTIR

   Fourier transform infrared

GAC

   Granular activated carbon

GC

   Gas chromatography

HA

   Humic acids

HMW

   High molecular weight

HMBC

   Heteronuclear multiple bond correlation

HPLC

   High performance liquid chromatography

HPSEC

   High performance size exclusion chromatography

HR-MAS

   High resolution magic-angle spinning

ICP AES

   Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy

IR

   Infrared

LC-MS

   Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

LC-OCD

   Liquid chromatography-organic carbon detection

MM

   Molar mass

MWD

   Molecular weight distribution

NMR

   Nuclear magnetic resonance

NOM

   Natural organic matter

OCD

   Organic carbon detection

PARAFAC

   Parallel factor

PSS

   Polystyrene sulfonate

Py-GC-MS

   Pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

RO

   Reverse osmosis

RPHPLC

   Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

SEC

   Size exclusion chromatography

SEM

   Scanning electron microscopy

SHA

   Slightly hydrophobic acid

SUVA

   Specific UV-absorbance

TEM

   Transmission electron microscopy

THM

   Trihalomethane

TOC

   Total organic carbon

UV–Vis

   Ultraviolet and visible

VHA

   Very hydrophobic acid

2.1. Introduction

Natural organic matter (NOM) is a complex mixture of organic compounds. Some of this organic matter is negatively charged, and it can possess a wide variety of chemical compositions and molecular sizes (Thurman, 1985; Swietlik et al., 2004).

All disinfection methods (chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, chloramines, and UV radiation) reportedly produce their own suite of disinfection by-products (DBPs) and bioreactive compounds in drinking water (Richardson et al., 2007). Present knowledge and experience show that the hydrophobic and high molecular weight (HMW) compounds of NOM are the most significant precursors to DBP formation (Hua and Reckhow, 2007; Chen et al., 2008). Hydrophilic matter may also play a key role in the formation of new compounds during disinfection, especially in waters with low humic components.

More efficient removal of NOM requires more knowledge of the organic matter present in raw water, and novel methods have been developed for the characterization of these organic compounds. At the same time, existing methods and techniques have been improved. These characterization methods are used to study the composition of NOM prior to treatment and during various stages of the treatment process (Chen et al., 2007; Sarathy and Mohseni, 2007; Her et al., 2008a; Liu et al., 2008; Tercero Espinoza et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2010). The diversity of molecules that constitute NOM and the relatively low concentrations of NOM in water often make characterization difficult. There is, therefore, a significant need for methods that can either accurately characterize NOM in these dilute solutions or isolated or concentrated NOM.

The NOM in raw water must be characterized to understand its role in water treatment (Matilainen et al., 2011). Ideally, once the various NOM components and fractions of a raw water source have been determined, the treatment processes that will eliminate the most dominant NOM fractions could be selected. Yet, NOM contains literally thousands of chemical constituents. Thus, it is not realistic to characterize NOM on the basis of individual components, as discussed in the introduction, but it is more practical to identify groups of chemicals with similar properties (Croue et al., 2000).

An alternative approach to the characterization of NOM is to study how it reacts to DBP formation and the occurrence of different DBPs in drinking water (Culea et al., 2006; Kanokkantapong et al., 2006b; Chen et al., 2008; Cooper et al., 2008; Richardson et al., 2008; Blodau et al., 2009). The binding potential of NOM with inorganic and organic micropollutants may also be relevant to drinking water treatment (Gjessing et al., 2007; Laborda et al., 2009; Park, 2009).

Different unit processes remove different NOM fractions during water treatment (Haarhoff et al., 2010). Therefore, more sophisticated characterization techniques are required (Matilainen et al., 2011). Several complementary methods can provide definitive structural or functional information about NOM, and have been found to correlate well, allowing for comprehensive characterization (Jaouadi et al., 2012; Penru et al., 2013). These analytical methods also provide better information for process design and optimization than the conventional dissolved organic carbon (DOC) measurements.

DOC, chemical oxygen demand (COD), UV254, pH, turbidity, and color are common water quality parameters assessed by water treatment facilities in their quality control. Assessment of these parameters does not require sophisticated equipment, is simple and fast to perform, and can be automated. Yet, such assessments offer no information about the characteristics of NOM such as molar mass (MM) or hydrophobicity.

Traditionally, humic substances have been classified into three categories based on their solubility: humic acid (HA), fulvic acid (FA), and humin. This is an operational division, however; the terms do not refer to single compounds but to a wide range of compounds of similar origin (Uyguner-Demirel and Bekbolet, 2011). NOM may be characterized by high performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) analysis, which determines the molecular weight distribution (MWD) of NOM (Chow et al., 2008; Korshin et al., 2009), or by fractionation techniques that use resins to divide the mixture of organic compounds of NOM into hydrophilic and hydrophobic fractions (Sharp et al., 2006a,b). Although these parameters provide useful information regarding the change in organic characteristics during treatment and impact on DBP formation, it has...