Shukla / Varma Soil Enzymology

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-14225-3
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 22, 384 Seiten

Reihe: Soil Biology

Soil enzymes are one of the vital key mediators involved in nutrient recycling and the decomposition of organic matter and thereby in maintaining soil quality and fertility. This Soil Biology volume covers the various facets of soil enzymes, such as their functions, biochemical and microbiological properties and the factors affecting their activities. Enzymes in the rhizosphere, in forest soils, and in volcanic ash-derived soils are described. Soil enzymes covered include phosphohydrolases, lignocellulose-degrading enzymes, phenol oxidases, fungal oxidoreductases, keratinases, pectinases, xylanases, lipases and pectinases. Several chapters treat the soil enzymatic activities in the bioremediation of soils contaminated with pesticides and pollutants such as oil, chlorinated compounds, synthetic dyes and aromatic hydrocarbons. The role of soil enzymes as bioindicators is a further important topic addressed.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Varma, Ajit

Shukla, Girish

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Soil Enzymology;3
1.1;Preface;5
1.2;Contents;9
1.3;Contributors;13
1.4;Chapter 1: Soil Enzyme: The State-of-Art;17
1.4.1;1.1 Introduction;17
1.4.2;1.2 Soil: A Physical Point of View;18
1.4.2.1;1.2.1 Particle Shape and Size;18
1.4.2.2;1.2.2 Textural Classes;18
1.4.2.3;1.2.3 Colors;19
1.4.2.4;1.2.4 Density;19
1.4.2.5;1.2.5 Pore Space;19
1.4.2.6;1.2.6 Plasticity and Cohesion;19
1.4.2.7;1.2.7 Soil Temperature and Heat;20
1.4.2.8;1.2.8 Soil Water;20
1.4.3;1.3 Soil: A Chemical Point of View;20
1.4.3.1;1.3.1 Organic Matter;20
1.4.3.2;1.3.2 Humus;21
1.4.3.3;1.3.3 Soil Colloids;21
1.4.4;1.4 Soil: A Biological Point of View;21
1.4.4.1;1.4.1 Kind of Soil Organisms;22
1.4.4.1.1;1.4.1.1 Eubacteria;22
1.4.4.1.2;1.4.1.2 Fungi;24
1.4.4.1.2.1;Decomposers;24
1.4.4.1.2.2;Mutualists;24
1.4.4.1.2.3;Pathogens;24
1.4.4.1.3;1.4.1.3 Algae;25
1.4.4.2;1.4.2 Population Density;25
1.4.4.3;1.4.3 Bacterial Activity;25
1.4.4.3.1;1.4.3.1 Energetics of Nitrification;26
1.4.5;1.5 Enzymes;27
1.4.6;1.6 Soil Enzymes;27
1.4.6.1;1.6.1 Amylase;29
1.4.6.2;1.6.2 beta-Glucosidase;29
1.4.6.3;1.6.3 Cellulase;30
1.4.6.4;1.6.4 Laccase;30
1.4.6.5;1.6.5 Chitinase;31
1.4.6.6;1.6.6 Dehydrogenase;31
1.4.6.7;1.6.7 Phosphatase;32
1.4.6.8;1.6.8 Protease;33
1.4.6.9;1.6.9 Urease;33
1.4.6.10;1.6.10 Arylsulphatase;33
1.4.7;1.7 Conclusion;34
1.4.8;References;34
1.5;Chapter 2: Role of Enzymes in Maintaining Soil Health;40
1.5.1;2.1 Introduction;40
1.5.2;2.2 Soil Enzymes;41
1.5.2.1;2.2.1 Kind of Soil Enzymes;41
1.5.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 Constitutive;41
1.5.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Inducible;41
1.5.2.2;2.2.2 Origin and State of Soil Enzymes;42
1.5.2.3;2.2.3 Importance of Soil Enzymes;42
1.5.2.4;2.2.4 Application of Soil Enzymes;42
1.5.3;2.3 Soil Health;43
1.5.3.1;2.3.1 Definition;43
1.5.3.2;2.3.2 Aspects of Soil Health;44
1.5.3.3;2.3.3 Interpretation of Soil Health;44
1.5.3.4;2.3.4 Pressures on Soil Health Towards Impacts;45
1.5.4;2.4 Indicators of Soil Health;46
1.5.4.1;2.4.1 Microorganism as Indicators of Soil Health;46
1.5.4.2;2.4.2 Soil Enzymes as Indicators of Soil Health;46
1.5.5;2.5 Potential Roles of Soil Enzymes in Maintaining Soil Health;47
1.5.5.1;2.5.1 Amylase;47
1.5.5.2;2.5.2 Arylsulphatases;48
1.5.5.3;2.5.3 beta-Glucosidase;48
1.5.5.4;2.5.4 Cellulases;49
1.5.5.5;2.5.5 Chitinase;50
1.5.5.6;2.5.6 Dehydrogenase;50
1.5.5.7;2.5.7 Phosphatases;51
1.5.5.8;2.5.8 Proteases;51
1.5.5.9;2.5.9 Urease;52
1.5.6;2.6 Conclusion;52
1.5.7;References;53
1.6;Chapter 3: Agricultural and Ecological Significance of Soil Enzymes: Soil Carbon Sequestration and Nutrient Cycling;58
1.6.1;3.1 Introduction;58
1.6.2;3.2 Soil Enzymes for Organic Matter Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling;59
1.6.2.1;3.2.1 Soil Enzymes of Primary Interest;59
1.6.2.2;3.2.2 Lignocellulolytic Enzymes as Predictors of Organic Matter Decomposition;60
1.6.2.3;3.2.3 Enzymes as Indicators of Soil Nutrient Availability;61
1.6.3;3.3 Microbial Enzyme Production as Affected by Organic Carbon and Nutrient Availability;61
1.6.3.1;3.3.1 Positive and Negative Feedback Mechanisms;61
1.6.3.2;3.3.2 Microbial Resource Reallocation;63
1.6.3.3;3.3.3 Microbial Nutrient Demand;64
1.6.4;3.4 Soil Enzyme Activity in Relation to the Quantity and Quality of Soil Organic Matter;65
1.6.5;3.5 Agricultural and Ecological Significance of Soil Enzymes in Soil Carbon Sequestration;65
1.6.5.1;3.5.1 Assessing Carbon Efflux in Peatlands Under Global Climate Change;65
1.6.5.2;3.5.2 Predicting Soil Carbon Sequestration in Temperate Forests;66
1.6.5.3;3.5.3 Understanding Soil Carbon Storage Potential in Semi-arid Grasslands;69
1.6.5.4;3.5.4 Restoring Soil Organic Matter from the Perspective of Soil Enzymes;70
1.6.6;3.6 Conclusions;71
1.6.7;References;72
1.7;Chapter 4: Enzymes in Forest Soils;76
1.7.1;4.1 Introduction;76
1.7.2;4.2 Distribution of Enzymes in the Soil Profile;77
1.7.3;4.3 Spatial Variability of Enzyme Activities in Soils;78
1.7.4;4.4 Factors Affecting Soil Enzyme Activities;80
1.7.4.1;4.4.1 Producers of Extracellular Enzymes;80
1.7.4.2;4.4.2 Soil Chemistry and Nutrient Availability;80
1.7.4.3;4.4.3 Seasonality;81
1.7.4.4;4.4.4 Soil Moisture Content;82
1.7.5;4.5 Litter Decomposition in Forest Ecosystems;83
1.7.6;4.6 Conclusions;84
1.7.7;References;84
1.8;Chapter 5: Extracellular Enzymes in Sensing Environmental Nutrients and Ecosystem Changes: Ligand Mediation in Organic Phospho;89
1.8.1;5.1 Introduction;89
1.8.2;5.2 Biogeochemistry of Phosphorus;91
1.8.2.1;5.2.1 Inorganic Phosphate;92
1.8.2.2;5.2.2 Organic Phosphorus;94
1.8.3;5.3 Reactions Involving Organic Phosphorus in Soils;95
1.8.3.1;5.3.1 Chemical Processes;95
1.8.3.1.1;5.3.1.1 Adsorption-Precipitation;95
1.8.3.1.2;5.3.1.2 Autohydrolysis and Metal-Mediated Hydrolysis;97
1.8.3.2;5.3.2 Biological Processes Involved in Organic P Solubilization and Degradation;99
1.8.3.2.1;5.3.2.1 Mineralization of Environmental Biological Tissues Containing Organic P;99
1.8.3.2.2;5.3.2.2 Mycorrhizal Associations;100
1.8.3.2.3;5.3.2.3 Extracellular Phosphohydrolases;101
1.8.3.2.3.1;Enzymatic Dephosphorylation of Uncomplexed Organic Phosphate Monoesters;101
1.8.3.2.3.2;Ligand Mediation of (or Chemically-Assisted) Enzymatic Dephosphorylation of Complexed Organic Phosphate Monoesters;102
1.8.4;5.4 An In Vitro Method to Emulate Ligand-Based Plant and Microbial Solubilization and Mineralization of Organic P Pools in Soil;106
1.8.5;5.5 Conclusions;108
1.8.6;References;110
1.9;Chapter 6: Importance of Extracellular Enzymes for Biogeochemical Processes in Temporary River Sediments during Fluctuating Dr;117
1.9.1;6.1 Introduction;117
1.9.2;6.2 The Response of Benthic Microbial Communities to Drought: A Matter of Survival;119
1.9.3;6.3 Benthic Microbial Community Awakening After Flooding;124
1.9.4;6.4 Conclusions;127
1.9.5;References;129
1.10;Chapter 7: Soil Enzymes as Indication of Soil Quality;132
1.10.1;7.1 Introduction;132
1.10.2;7.2 Soil Enzymes: Classification, Sources, States, Affecting Factors and Activation or Inhibition;135
1.10.2.1;7.2.1 Enzyme Classification;135
1.10.2.2;7.2.2 Sources of Soil Enzymes;136
1.10.2.3;7.2.3 States;136
1.10.2.4;7.2.4 Affecting Factors;137
1.10.2.5;7.2.5 Enzyme Inhibition and Activation;137
1.10.3;7.3 Indication of Soil Enzymes;138
1.10.3.1;7.3.1 Soil Enzymes as Pollution Indicators;141
1.10.3.2;7.3.2 Soil Enzymes as Ecosystems Perturbations Indicators;144
1.10.3.3;7.3.3 Soil Enzymes as Agricultural Practices Indicators;146
1.10.4;7.4 Conclusion;152
1.10.5;References;153
1.11;Chapter 8: Enzyme Activities in the Rhizosphere of Plants;162
1.11.1;8.1 Introduction;162
1.11.2;8.2 Effect of Root Exudates on Rhizosphere Soil Enzyme Activities;165
1.11.3;8.3 The Role of Lytic Enzymes and Plant Growth Regulators;166
1.11.4;8.4 Effect of Soil Management and Heavy Metals on Rhizosphere Soil Enzyme Activities;169
1.11.5;8.5 Impact of Salinity on Rhizosphere Enzyme Activities;171
1.11.6;8.6 Conclusions;173
1.11.7;References;174
1.12;Chapter 9: Lignocellulose-Degrading Enzymes in Soils;180
1.12.1;9.1 Introduction;180
1.12.2;9.2 Degradation of Cellulose and Hemicelluloses;181
1.12.3;9.3 Enzymes Degrading Lignin and Humic Substances;182
1.12.4;9.4 Lignocellulolytic Systems of Soil Microorganisms;183
1.12.5;9.5 Lignocellulolytic Enzymes in Different Ecosystems;185
1.12.5.1;9.5.1 Polar and Mountainous Soils;186
1.12.5.2;9.5.2 Boreal Forests;187
1.12.5.3;9.5.3 Temperate Forests;188
1.12.5.4;9.5.4 Evergreen Forests;188
1.12.5.5;9.5.5 Grasslands;189
1.12.5.6;9.5.6 Arable Soils;189
1.12.5.7;9.5.7 Wetlands;190
1.12.5.8;9.5.8 Arid and Desert Soils;190
1.12.6;9.6 Factors Affecting Lignocellulose Degradation in Soils;191
1.12.7;9.7 Molecular Biology of Enzymes in Soils;192
1.12.8;9.8 Conclusions;193
1.12.9;References;193
1.13;Chapter 10: Heterophase Synthesis of Humic Acids in Soils by Immobilized Phenol Oxidases;200
1.13.1;10.1 Introduction;200
1.13.2;10.2 Synthesis of Humic Substances from Soluble Precursors;201
1.13.2.1;10.2.1 Enzymatic Catalysis;202
1.13.2.1.1;10.2.1.1 Occurrence of Phenol Oxidases in Soils;203
1.13.2.1.2;10.2.1.2 Phenol Oxidase Distribution among Soil Phases;204
1.13.2.1.3;10.2.1.3 Synthesis of Humic Substances in the Aqueous Phase;205
1.13.2.1.4;10.2.1.4 Synthesis of Humic Substances on the Solution/Solid Interface;207
1.13.2.2;10.2.2 Abiotic Heterogeneous Catalysis;212
1.13.3;10.3 Conclusions;214
1.13.4;References;215
1.14;Chapter 11: Fungal Oxidoreductases and Humification in Forest Soils;219
1.14.1;11.1 Introduction;219
1.14.2;11.2 The Origin of HSs;220
1.14.3;11.3 Major Fungal Oxidative Enzymes;221
1.14.3.1;11.3.1 Peroxidases;221
1.14.3.2;11.3.2 Laccase and Tyrosinase;222
1.14.4;11.4 Humification Activities of Fungi in Wood and Soil;223
1.14.4.1;11.4.1 Wood Decomposers;224
1.14.4.1.1;11.4.1.1 Soft-rot Ascomycetes: Production of Large Soluble Fragments;224
1.14.4.1.2;11.4.1.2 Brown-rot Fungi: Formation of Humic Acids from Partially Oxidized Lignin;226
1.14.4.1.3;11.4.1.3 White-rot Fungi: Production of Small Soluble Polyphenols (Structural Units) and FAs;226
1.14.4.2;11.4.2 Litter and Soil-inhabiting Fungi;228
1.14.4.2.1;11.4.2.1 Microfungi: Lignocellulose and Humus Solubilization, Synthesis of Melanins, and HS;228
1.14.4.2.2;11.4.2.2 Saprotrophic Basidiomycetes: Production of the ``White-Rot´´ Humus and FA-like Compounds;229
1.14.4.3;11.4.3 Symbiotic Fungi;230
1.14.4.3.1;11.4.3.1 Ectomycorrhiza;231
1.14.4.3.2;11.4.3.2 Lichens;232
1.14.5;11.5 Conclusions;234
1.14.6;References;235
1.15;Chapter 12: Evolutionary-Economic Principles as Regulators of Soil Enzyme Production and Ecosystem Function;241
1.15.1;12.1 Introduction;241
1.15.2;12.2 The Evolutionary Economics of Extracellular Enzyme Production;243
1.15.3;12.3 Controls on Microbial Allocation to Enzyme Production;243
1.15.3.1;12.3.1 Microbial Demand;243
1.15.3.2;12.3.2 Enzyme Regulation;244
1.15.4;12.4 Resource Availability in Soil;245
1.15.5;12.5 Implications of Enzyme Allocation;247
1.15.5.1;12.5.1 Protection of Investment;247
1.15.5.2;12.5.2 Enzyme Responses to Global Environmental Change;248
1.15.5.2.1;12.5.2.1 Increase in Atmospheric CO2;249
1.15.5.2.2;12.5.2.2 Increases in N Deposition;250
1.15.5.2.3;12.5.2.3 Changes in Temperature and Moisture;251
1.15.6;12.6 Conclusions;251
1.15.7;References;252
1.16;Chapter 13: Controls on the Temperature Sensitivity of Soil Enzymes: A Key Driver of In Situ Enzyme Activity Rates;256
1.16.1;13.1 Introduction;256
1.16.2;13.2 What Controls Enzyme Temperature Sensitivity?;257
1.16.2.1;13.2.1 Enzyme Conformation;257
1.16.2.2;13.2.2 Modeling Enzyme Kinetics;259
1.16.2.3;13.2.3 Michaelis-Menten Model;260
1.16.2.4;13.2.4 Enzyme Binding to Soil Particles;262
1.16.3;13.3 Indirect Effects of Temperature on Enzyme Activities;263
1.16.4;13.4 Temperature Sensitivity of Extracellular Enzymes under Field Conditions;263
1.16.5;13.5 Conclusions;265
1.16.6;References;266
1.17;Chapter 14: Actinomycetes: Sources for Soil Enzymes;270
1.17.1;14.1 Introduction;270
1.17.2;14.2 Keratinases;272
1.17.3;14.3 Pectinases;273
1.17.4;14.4 Xylanases;275
1.17.5;14.5 Lipases;276
1.17.6;14.6 Conclusion;278
1.17.7;References;279
1.18;Chapter 15: Organo-Mineral-Enzyme Interaction and Soil Enzyme Activity;281
1.18.1;15.1 Introduction;281
1.18.2;15.2 History of Enzyme-Organo-Mineral Interaction Studies;282
1.18.3;15.3 Enzyme-Mineral Interactions;284
1.18.4;15.4 Enzyme-Organic Matter Interactions;289
1.18.5;15.5 Mineral-Organic Matter-Enzyme Synergistic Interactions;292
1.18.6;15.6 Consequences of Organo-Mineral-Enzyme Interactions;295
1.18.7;15.7 Conclusion;296
1.18.8;References;296
1.19;Chapter 16: The Influence of Pesticides on Soil Enzymes;303
1.19.1;16.1 Introduction;303
1.19.2;16.2 Pesticides and Soil;304
1.19.3;16.3 Soil Enzymes;307
1.19.4;16.4 Pesticides and Soil Enzymes;310
1.19.5;16.5 Conclusions;318
1.19.6;References;319
1.20;Chapter 17: Behavior of Enzymatic Activity in Chilean Volcanic Soil and Their Interactions with Clay Fraction;323
1.20.1;17.1 Introduction;323
1.20.2;17.2 Chilean Volcanic Soil;324
1.20.2.1;17.2.1 Characteristics of Chilean Volcanic Soils;324
1.20.2.2;17.2.2 Properties of Volcanic Ashes-derived Soils;324
1.20.2.3;17.2.3 Mechanisms of Enzyme Immobilization in Soil Derived of Volcanic Ash;326
1.20.2.3.1;17.2.3.1 Enzyme Immobilization on Andisol Clay Fraction;326
1.20.2.3.2;17.2.3.2 Enzyme Immobilization on Ultisol Clay Fraction;328
1.20.2.3.3;17.2.3.3 Some Considerations about Model Using Synthetic Complexes Clay-Enzyme;329
1.20.3;17.3 Soil of Enzymatic Activities in Relation with Some Management Practices;330
1.20.3.1;17.3.1 Soil Enzymatic Activities in Andisols and Ultisols of Southern Chile;330
1.20.3.1.1;17.3.1.1 Evaluation of the Effect of Mn and Mo on Acid Phosphatase in a Model System of Andisol;332
1.20.4;17.4 Conclusion;333
1.20.5;References;335
1.21;Chapter 18: Screening, Characterisation and Optimization of Microbial Pectinase;339
1.21.1;18.1 Introduction;339
1.21.2;18.2 Structure of Pectin;340
1.21.3;18.3 Materials and Methods;342
1.21.4;18.4 Screening of Pectinolytic Actinomycetes;344
1.21.5;18.5 Assay of Pectinase;344
1.21.6;18.6 Optimization of Pectinase;345
1.21.7;18.7 Designing Model;346
1.21.8;18.8 Conclusion;346
1.21.9;References;347
1.22;Chapter 19: Molecular Techniques to Study Polymorphism between Closely Related Microorganisms in Relation to Specific Protein ;348
1.22.1;19.1 Introduction to Sebacinales;348
1.22.2;19.2 Techniques to Study Polymorphism;350
1.22.2.1;19.2.1 Cultivation of Fungi;350
1.22.2.1.1;19.2.1.1 Materials;350
1.22.2.2;19.2.2 Enzyme Assay (Straker and Mitchell 1986);351
1.22.2.2.1;19.2.2.1 Extraction of Protein;351
1.22.2.2.1.1;Equipments;351
1.22.2.2.1.2;Reagents;351
1.22.2.2.1.3;Protein Extraction Buffer (Rosendahl 1994);351
1.22.2.2.1.4;Procedure;352
1.22.2.2.2;19.2.2.2 Optimization of Physical Conditions;352
1.22.2.2.2.1;Equipment;352
1.22.2.2.2.2;Reagent;352
1.22.2.2.2.3;Procedure;352
1.22.2.2.3;19.2.2.3 Calculation (see Fig.19.3);353
1.22.2.2.3.1;Equipment;353
1.22.2.2.3.2;Reagents;353
1.22.2.2.3.3;Procedure;354
1.22.2.2.4;19.2.2.4 Determination of Vmax and Km value;354
1.22.2.2.4.1;Equipment;354
1.22.2.2.4.2;Reagents;354
1.22.2.2.4.3;Procedure;354
1.22.2.2.5;19.2.2.5 Two-Dimensional PAGE to Show Protein Polymorphism (Gravel and Golaz 1996);355
1.22.2.2.5.1;Equipment;355
1.22.2.2.5.2;Reagents;355
1.22.2.2.5.3;Preparation of Second Dimension SDS gels;356
1.22.2.2.6;19.2.2.6 Silver Staining (Horst 2000; Oakley et al. 1980);357
1.22.2.2.6.1;Procedure;357
1.22.2.3;19.2.3 Non-denatured Protein Polymorphism Study by Native Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (Walker 1994);358
1.22.2.3.1;19.2.3.1 Equipments;358
1.22.2.3.2;19.2.3.2 Reagents;358
1.22.2.3.3;19.2.3.3 Loading Buffer;359
1.22.2.3.4;19.2.3.4 Gel Staining Solution;359
1.22.2.3.5;19.2.3.5 Procedure;360
1.22.2.3.6;19.2.3.6 Gel Enzyme Assay (Walker 1996);360
1.22.2.3.6.1;Reagents;360
1.22.2.3.6.2;Procedure;360
1.22.2.3.6.3;Equipment;360
1.22.2.3.6.4;Enzyme Elution;361
1.22.2.3.6.5;SDS Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis;361
1.22.2.3.6.6;ELF 97 Endogenous Phosphatase Detection (van Aarle 2001);363
1.22.2.3.6.6.1;Equipments;363
1.22.2.3.6.6.2;Reagents;363
1.22.2.3.6.6.3;Component A;363
1.22.2.3.6.6.4;Component B;363
1.22.2.3.6.6.5;Component C;363
1.22.2.3.6.7;Procedure;363
1.22.2.3.6.8;Fast Garnet GBC Staining of Phosphatase Isozymes (Pasteur et al. 1988);364
1.22.2.4;19.2.4 Polymorphism Based on Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) Technique;365
1.22.2.4.1;19.2.4.1 Equipment;365
1.22.2.4.2;19.2.4.2 Reagents;366
1.22.2.4.3;19.2.4.3 Ethidium Bromide (10mg/ml);366
1.22.2.4.4;19.2.4.4 Procedure;367
1.22.3;19.3 Conclusion;368
1.22.4;References;369
1.23;Chapter 20: Production of Ligninolytic Enzymes by White-rot Fungi during Bioremediation of Oil-contaminated Soil;371
1.23.1;20.1 Introduction;371
1.23.2;20.2 Materials and Method;374
1.23.3;20.3 Salient Observations;376
1.23.4;20.4 Conclusions;382
1.23.5;References;383
1.24;Index;386