Schön / Martens / Dijk Lost Sex

The Evolutionary Biology of Parthenogenesis
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-90-481-2770-2
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 615 Seiten

Sex is the queen of problems in evolutionary biology. Generations of researchers have investigated one of the last remaining evolutionary paradoxes: why sex exists at all. Given that sexual reproduction is costly from an evolutionary point of view, one could wonder why not all animals and plants reproduce asexually. Dozens of contemporary hypotheses attempt to explain the prevalence of sex and its advantages and predict the early extinction of fully asexual lineages.

The major theme of this book is: what is the fate of animal and plant groups in which sex is lost? Initial chapters discuss theory behind asexual life: what major disadvantages do asexual groups have to face, what are the genetic and ecological consequences and what does this theory predict for more applied aspects of asexual life, for example in agricultural pests, diseases as well as in cultural crops such as grapes. Cases studies in many animals (focusing on both invertebrates and vertebrates) and plants reveal parallel, but also singularly novel adaptations to the absence of meiosis and syngamy. And last but not least, are asexuals really doomed to early extinction or do genuine ancient asexuals exist?

This book assembles contributions from the most important research groups dealing with asexual evolution in eukaryotes. It is a milestone in research on parthenogenesis and will be useful to undergraduate as well as graduate students and to senior researchers in all fields of evolutionary biology, as the paradox of sex remains its queen of problems.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Schön, Isa

Martens, Koen

Dijk, Peter van

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;4
1.1;References;6
2;Contents;7
3;Contributors;10
4;1 Asex and Evolution: A Very Large-Scale Overview;15
4.1;1.1 Eukaryote Reproduction and the Meiotic Cycle;15
4.2;1.2 Asex Is Often Associated with Polyploidy and Hybridity;6
4.3;1.3 Asex Can Have Many Different Immediate Causes;19
4.4;1.4 Asex Is the Outcome of a Darwinian Process with Special Properties;21
4.5;1.5 Asex Is Almost Always Associated with Some Sex;23
4.6;1.6 Most Asexuals Are Genetically Variable;24
4.7;1.7 Asexual Lineages Are Comparatively Short-Lived;26
4.8;1.8 The Lack of Recombination Gives Asexual Lineages a Long-Term Disadvantage;27
4.9;1.9 The Paradox of Asex;29
4.10;References;30
5;2 The Evolution of the Problem of Sex;34
5.1;2.1 Introduction;34
5.2;2.2 Darwin: The Effects of Cross-Fertilization;35
5.2.1;2.2.1 The Early Notebooks: Becoming Interested in the Significance of Sex;36
5.2.2;2.2.2 Sex and Variation;37
5.2.3;2.2.3 Sex Unites a Species;38
5.2.4;2.2.4 Cross-Fertilization: A Law of Nature;38
5.2.5;2.2.5 Sex and Hybrid Vigor;39
5.3;2.3 Weismann: The Significance of Sexual Reproduction in the Theory of Natural Selection;40
5.3.1;2.3.1 The Principles of Heredity;41
5.3.2;2.3.2 Heredity, Variability and Sex;42
5.3.3;2.3.3 The Significance of Sex, 1886;42
5.3.4;2.3.4 The Significance of Sex, 1891;43
5.3.5;2.3.5 Cyclical and Obligate Parthenogenesis;45
5.4;2.4 Fisher: The Contrast Between Sexual and Asexual Reproduction;46
5.4.1;2.4.1 Mendelism and Darwinism;47
5.4.2;2.4.2 The Adaptive Significance of Sex;48
5.4.3;2.4.3 Sex, Time and Levels of Selection;49
5.5;2.5 Maynard Smith: The Cost of Sex;50
5.5.1;2.5.1 The Evolutionary Synthesis and Appearing Complexities;51
5.5.2;2.5.2 Group Selection and Sex;52
5.5.3;2.5.3 The Fisher-Muller Model and a Changing Environment;52
5.5.4;2.5.4 The Problem of the Cost of Sex;53
5.5.5;2.5.5 Conceptual Framework;53
5.6;2.6 Discussion;54
5.7;References;58
6;3 Apomixis: Basics for Non-botanists;60
6.1;3.1 Introduction;60
6.2;3.2 Vegetative Reproduction in Plants is Not Apomixis;62
6.3;3.3 Apomixis Is a Modification of Sexual Reproduction;63
6.4;3.4 Types of Apomixis in Flowering Plants;64
6.5;3.5 Pseudogamy and Autonomous Endosperm Development;66
6.6;3.6 Phenotyping Apomixis;67
6.7;3.7 Facultative Apomixis;67
6.8;3.8 Causes of Apomixis;68
6.9;3.9 Most Apomictic Plants Are Hermaphrodites;69
6.10;3.10 Somatic Mutations;69
6.11;3.11 The Phylogenetic Distribution of Apomixis in the Flowering Plants;70
6.12;3.12 Constraints on the Evolution of Apomixis in Flowering Plants;70
6.13;3.13 Ancient Apomicts in Flowering Plants;71
6.14;3.14 Further Reading;72
6.15;3.15 Glossary;72
6.16;References;73
7;4 Cytology of Asexual Animals;76
7.1;4.1 The Importance of Cytology;76
7.2;4.2 Cytological Mechanisms of Animal Parthenogenesis;77
7.2.1;4.2.1 Automictic Parthenogenesis;77
7.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 Gamete Duplication;78
7.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 Terminal Fusion;79
7.2.1.3;4.2.1.3 Central Fusion;80
7.2.1.4;4.2.1.4 The First Polar Nucleus Fuses with the Nucleus of the Secondary Oocyte;81
7.2.1.5;4.2.1.5 Gonoid Thelytoky;82
7.2.1.6;4.2.1.6 Premeiotic Doubling;82
7.2.2;4.2.2 Apomictic Parthenogenesis;83
7.3;4.3 Evolutionary Consequences;84
7.4;4.4 Polyploidy in Association with Parthenogenesis;84
7.5;4.5 Conclusions;85
7.6;References;86
8;5 A Graphical Approach to Lineage Selection Between Clonals and Sexuals;88
8.1;5.1 Introduction;88
8.2;5.2 Costs and Benefits of Sexual vs Clonal Reproduction;89
8.2.1;5.2.1 Short-Term Costs of Sexual Reproduction;89
8.2.2;5.2.2 Long-Term Costs of Clonal Reproduction;92
8.3;5.3 Fundamental Benefits to Sex;94
8.3.1;5.3.1 Equilibrium Mutational Load in Clonal Lineages;94
8.3.2;5.3.2 Contrasting Equilibrium Mutational Load in Sexual and Clonal Lineages;96
8.3.3;5.3.3 A Graphical Depiction of Background-Trapping and the Accumulation of Favourable and Harmful Mutations;101
8.4;5.4 Clonal vs Sexual Lineages;105
8.5;5.5 Conclusions;108
8.6;References;108
9;6 Geographical Parthenogenesis: General Purpose Genotypes and Frozen Niche Variation;111
9.1;6.1 Introduction;111
9.1.1;6.1.1 Adaptation at the Margins;113
9.2;6.2 General Purpose Genotype (GPG);114
9.2.1;6.2.1 Elevated Ploidy and Hybridity;116
9.2.2;6.2.2 Evidence for General Purpose Genotypes;117
9.3;6.3 Frozen Niche-Variation (FNV);123
9.3.1;6.3.1 Evidence for Frozen Niche Variation;126
9.4;6.4 Evolution of Generalist Versus Specialist Clones;127
9.4.1;6.4.1 GPG and FNV Are Not Mutually Exclusive;133
9.5;6.5 Conclusions;134
9.6;References;134
10;7 Sex and the Red Queen;144
10.1;7.1 Sex and the Red Queen Introduction;144
10.2;7.2 Assumptions and Predictions of the Model;146
10.2.1;7.2.1 Population Genetics;147
10.2.2;7.2.2 Infection Dynamics;151
10.3;7.3 Does It Work?;152
10.3.1;7.3.1 Geographical Distribution of Sex and Outcrossing;152
10.3.2;7.3.2 Frequency of Sex vs Frequency of Infection;153
10.3.3;7.3.3 Susceptibility to Infection;154
10.3.4;7.3.4 Rare Advantage;155
10.3.5;7.3.5 Parasitic Tracking of Common Host Genotypes;157
10.3.6;7.3.6 Parasite Local Adaptation;158
10.3.7;7.3.7 Molecular Evolution in Disease Resistance Loci;160
10.4;7.4 Pluralism;161
10.4.1;7.4.1 The Red Queen and Pluralism;162
10.4.2;7.4.2 Empirical Tests;162
10.5;7.5 Conclusions;163
10.6;References;163
11;8 Geographical Parthenogenesis: Opportunities for Asexuality;171
11.1;8.1 Introduction;171
11.2;8.2 The Main Current Hypotheses;173
11.3;8.3 The Connection of Polyploidy, Hybridization and Asexuality;177
11.4;8.4 Hybridization and Polyploidy, and the Cost of Origins of Asexuality;178
11.5;8.5 Climatic Changes as Opportunities for Origins and Dispersal of Asexuality;180
11.6;8.6 Case Studies in Ranunculus ;185
11.7;8.7 Suggestions for Future Research;189
11.8;8.8 Glossary;190
11.9;References;190
12;9 The Elusive Clone In Search of Its True Nature and Identity;197
12.1;9.1 Box 9.1: Definitions of Sex and Asex;197
12.2;9.1 What Are Clones?;198
12.3;9.2 A Brief History of Clonal Concepts;199
12.4;9.3 Germline Versus Soma: The Weismannian Doctrine Revisited;201
12.5;9.4 Clonal Concepts;203
12.6;9.5 Box 9.2: Brief Description of Extant Clonal Concepts;204
12.7;9.5 Validity of the Clonal Concepts;205
12.8;9.6 Conclusions;206
12.9;References;207
13;10 Asexual Speciation;211
13.1;10.1 The Importance of Asexual Species;211
13.2;10.2 General Theory of Speciation and Species in Asexuals;213
13.3;10.3 Criteria for Assigning Individuals to Species;216
13.3.1;10.3.1 The 4X Rule;216
13.3.2;10.3.2 Analysis of Branching Rates;218
13.4;10.4 Application to Bdelloid Rotifers;219
13.5;10.5 Application to Oribatid Mites;222
13.6;10.6 Predictions About Relative Speciation Rates in Sexuals and Parthenogens;222
13.7;10.7 Conclusions;224
13.8;References;225
14;11 Darwinulid Ostracods: Ancient Asexual Scandals or Scandalous Gossip?;227
14.1;11.1 Introduction;227
14.2;11.2 Box 11.1 Ostracoda;227
14.3;11.2 Ostracods in General;228
14.4;11.2 Ostracod Diversity;228
14.5;11.2 Reproductive Modes in Ostracods;229
14.6;11.2 Ecology of Darwinulidae;229
14.7;11.2 Life History of Darwinulidae;229
14.8;11.2 Demonstrating the Status of Long-Lived Asexuals;231
14.8.1;11.2.1 Recent Males;231
14.8.2;11.2.2 Fossil Males;234
14.8.3;11.2.3 Genetic Signatures of Ancient Asexuality: The Meselson-White Effect;236
14.8.4;11.2.4 Genomics: Transposons;238
14.8.5;11.2.5 Chromosomal Evidence: Aneuploidy;239
14.8.6;11.2.6 Ancient Asexual Status for Darwinulid Ostracods?;239
14.9;11.3 Ecological Strategies of Darwinulid Ostracods;240
14.9.1;11.3.1 GPG Versus FNV;240
14.9.2;11.3.2 Parasites or No Parasites?;241
14.9.3;11.3.3 Marginal Habitats and Long-Term Asexuality;242
14.9.4;11.3.4 Reduced Mutation Rates;242
14.9.5;11.3.5 Brood Selection or Enhanced Fecundity?;243
14.10;11.4 How Darwinulids Could Have Survived Without Sex for Millions of Years;244
14.11;11.5 What Remains to be Discovered;245
14.12;References;246
15;12 Parthenogenesis in Oribatid Mites (Acari, Oribatida): Evolution Without Sex;251
15.1;12.1 General Biological Aspects of Oribatid Mites;251
15.1.1;12.1.1 Overview;251
15.1.2;12.1.2 Geological Age;252
15.1.3;12.1.3 Population Density;253
15.1.4;12.1.4 Niche Differentiation and Feeding Biology;253
15.1.5;12.1.5 Functioning;255
15.2;12.2 Reproductive and Developmental Biology;256
15.2.1;12.2.1 General Aspects;256
15.2.2;12.2.2 Female System and Reproductive Strategies;256
15.2.3;12.2.3 Parthenogenesis;257
15.2.4;12.2.4 Endosymbiotic Bacteria;259
15.3;12.3 Phylogeny of Parthenogenetic Lineages;260
15.3.1;12.3.1 General Phylogeny;260
15.3.2;12.3.2 Radiation of Parthenogenetic Lineages;260
15.4;12.4 Glossary;263
15.5;References;263
16;13 Bdelloid Rotifers: Progress in Understanding the Success of an Evolutionary Scandal;268
16.1;13.1 Introduction;268
16.2;13.2 Evidence of Long-Term Asexuality in Bdelloidea;269
16.3;13.3 Environmental Adaptations in Bdelloidea;273
16.4;13.4 Anhydrobiosis;275
16.5;13.5 Ionizing Radiation and Desiccation;277
16.6;13.6 Genome Structure;278
16.7;13.7 Synthesis;282
16.8;References;284
17;14 Sex Loss in Monogonont Rotifers;289
17.1;14.1 Introduction;289
17.2;14.2 The Monogonont Life Cycle;290
17.3;14.3 The Timing of Sex;292
17.4;14.4 The Cost of Sex in Cyclically Parthenogenetic Life Cycles;293
17.5;14.5 Mechanisms of Sex Loss in Monogononts;295
17.6;14.6 Selection for Sex Loss;296
17.7;14.7 Dormancy and Sex;299
17.8;References;300
18;15 Cyclical Parthenogenesis in Daphnia : Sexual Versus Asexual Reproduction;303
18.1;15.1 Introduction;303
18.2;15.2 Cyclical Parthenogenesis and Its Effect on the Genetic Structure of Daphnia Populations;304
18.3;15.3 Reasons to Maintain Sexual Reproduction in Daphnia;306
18.3.1;15.3.1 Local Genetic Adaptation;306
18.3.2;15.3.2 Red Queen Dynamics;307
18.3.3;15.3.3 Deleterious Mutations;309
18.4;15.4 Evolution to Asexuality in Daphnia and Other Cladocerans;309
18.5;15.5 Why Switch to Asexual Reproduction When You Can Be a Cyclical Parthenogen?;312
18.5.1;15.5.1 Clonal Erosion and Inbreeding;313
18.5.2;15.5.2 Food Limitations and Time Stress;314
18.5.3;15.5.3 Genetic Slippage and Time Stress;315
18.5.4;15.5.4 Polyploidy and Hybrid Vigour;317
18.5.5;15.5.5 Contagious Asexuality: Selfish or Not?;317
18.6;15.6 Conclusions;318
18.7;References;318
19;16 Metasexual Stick Insects: Model Pathways to Losing Sex and Bringing It Back;325
19.1;16.1 Introduction;325
19.1.1;16.1.1 Asexuals and Sexuals;325
19.1.2;16.1.2 Parthenogenesis and Polyploidy;326
19.2;16.2 Sexual and Asexual Stick Insects;326
19.2.1;16.2.1 Bacillus (Latreille);327
19.2.2;16.2.2 Leptynia Pantel and Pijnackeria Scali;335
19.3;16.3 Centrosome Dynamics and -Tubulin(s) in Stick Insects;339
19.4;16.4 Conclusions Are Stick Insects True Asexuals?;343
19.5;16.5 Glossary;346
19.6;References;347
20;17 Thelytoky in Hymenoptera with Venturia canescens and Leptopilina clavipes as Case Studies;354
20.1;17.1 Thelytoky in Hymenoptera;354
20.1.1;17.1.1 Introduction;354
20.1.2;17.1.2 Reproductive Modes;355
20.1.3;17.1.3 Types and Incidence of Thelytoky in Hymenoptera;355
20.1.4;17.1.4 Cytology and Genetic Consequences of Thelytoky;357
20.1.5;17.1.5 Thelytoky and Sex Determination;359
20.1.6;17.1.6 Evolutionary Consequences of Thelytoky;360
20.2;17.2 Case Study I: Venturia canescens;362
20.2.1;17.2.1 Introduction;362
20.2.2;17.2.2 Cytology and Genetics of Thelytoky;362
20.2.3;17.2.3 Thelytoky and Genetic Diversity;365
20.2.4;17.2.4 Coexistence of Arrhenotokous and Thelytokous Wasps;369
20.3;17.3 Case Study II: Leptopilina clavipes;371
20.3.1;17.3.1 Introduction;371
20.3.2;17.3.2 Cytology and Genetics of Thelytoky;372
20.3.3;17.3.3 Thelytoky and Genetic Diversity;372
20.3.4;17.3.4 Evolutionary Consequences of Thelytoky;374
20.4;17.4 Outlook;375
20.5;References;377
21;18 Sex in Parthenogenetic Planarians: Phylogenetic Relic or Evolutionary Resurrection?;383
21.1;18.1 The Uniqueness of Planarians;383
21.1.1;18.1.1 Flatworms in General;384
21.1.2;18.1.2 Freshwater Planarians;384
21.2;18.2 General Introduction to Schmidtea polychroa;386
21.2.1;18.2.1 General Characteristics;386
21.2.2;18.2.2 Reproductive Organs, Life Cycle and Development;386
21.2.3;18.2.3 Reproductive Types;387
21.2.4;18.2.4 Reproductive Behaviour;389
21.2.5;18.2.5 Phylogeographic Distribution and Population Genetics;390
21.3;18.3 Indications for a Cost of Sex;390
21.4;18.4 Indications for a Benefit of Sex;392
21.4.1;18.4.1 Accumulation of Deleterious Mutations;392
21.4.2;18.4.2 Parasites (Red Queen);393
21.4.3;18.4.3 Pluralism;394
21.5;18.5 Maintenance of Parthenogenesis;394
21.5.1;18.5.1 Costs of Sperm-Dependent Parthenogenesis;395
21.5.2;18.5.2 Benefits of Sperm-Dependent Parthenogenesis;396
21.5.2.1;18.5.2.1 Gene Flow Between Sexuals and Parthenogens;396
21.5.2.2;18.5.2.2 Gene Flow Among Parthenogens;397
21.6;18.6 Evaluation: Fate of Parthenogenetic and Sexual Populations;398
21.7;18.7 Outlook;399
21.8;References;400
22;19 Sperm-Dependent Parthenogenesis and Hybridogenesis in Teleost Fishes;404
22.1;19.1 Introduction;405
22.1.1;19.1.1 Unisexual Reproduction;405
22.1.2;19.1.2 Gynogenesis;405
22.1.3;19.1.3 Paternal Leakage;406
22.1.4;19.1.4 Hybridogenesis;406
22.2;19.2 Poeciliidae (Livebearing Toothcarps);408
22.2.1;19.2.1 Poecilia formosa;408
22.2.2;19.2.2 Poeciliopsis;414
22.3;19.3 Cyprinodontidae (Pupfishes);415
22.3.1;19.3.1 Fundulus diaphanus-heteroclitus;415
22.4;19.4 Atherinopsidae (Neotropical Silversides);415
22.4.1;19.4.1 Menidia clarkhubbsi;416
22.5;19.5 Cyprinidae (Minnows and Allies);416
22.5.1;19.5.1 Carassius gibelio;417
22.5.2;19.5.2 Carassius langsdorfii;418
22.5.3;19.5.3 Phoxinus eos-neogaeus;418
22.5.4;19.5.4 Squalius alburnoides;420
22.6;19.6 Cobitidae (Loach Fishes);423
22.6.1;19.6.1 Cobitis;423
22.6.2;19.6.2 Misgurnus anguillicaudatus;425
22.7;19.7 Conclusions;425
22.8;19.8 Glossary (for details: see also Fig. 19.1);429
22.9;References;429
23;20 Masked Damage: Mutational Load in Hemiclonal Water Frogs;438
23.1;20.1 Hybridogenesis;438
23.2;20.2 The Special Case of Water Frogs;439
23.3;20.3 Hemiclonality A Predisposition to Mutation Accumulation;441
23.4;20.4 Mutational Load in Rana esculenta ;442
23.5;20.5 Lost Load: Occasional Recombination Between Hemiclones;445
23.6;20.6 Lost Load Continued: Hybridogens as Vehicles for Gene Transfer;446
23.7;20.7 Open Questions and Outlook: Spontaneous Mutational Load in Natural Populations of Rana ridibunda ;447
23.8;References;448
24;21 Lost Sex in the Reptiles: Constraints and Correlations;452
24.1;21.1 Introduction;452
24.2;21.2 The Phylogenetic Distribution and Genetic Correlates of Parthenogenesis in Reptiles;453
24.2.1;21.2.1 Phylogenetic Distribution;453
24.2.2;21.2.2 Hybridization, Polyploidy and Genetic Diversity;456
24.2.3;21.2.3 Dynamics of Hybrid Origins;459
24.3;21.3 The Geography and Ecology of Parthenogenesis in Reptiles;459
24.3.1;21.3.1 Geographical Tendencies;459
24.3.2;21.3.2 Patterns of Exclusion and Coexistence;462
24.3.3;21.3.3 Phenotypic Comparisons;463
24.3.4;21.3.4 Resistance to Parasites;464
24.4;21.4 Genetic Constraints and Opportunities in the Evolution of Reptile Parthenogenesis;465
24.4.1;21.4.1 General Constraints;465
24.4.2;21.4.2 Consequences and Opportunities;467
24.4.3;21.4.3 The Role of Hybridization;469
24.5;21.5 Selective Pressure on Parthenogenesis in Reptiles;470
24.6;21.6 Conclusions;472
24.7;References;473
25;22 An Apomixis-Genes View on Dandelions;480
25.1;22.1 Introduction;480
25.2;22.2 The Genetics of Apomixis in Taraxacum ;481
25.3;22.3 Clones as Superorganisms;482
25.4;22.4 The Superstructure of Asexual Populations;483
25.5;22.5 Apomixis Genes are Older than Clones;486
25.6;22.6 A Mutation Load Linked to Apomixis-Genes;487
25.7;22.7 Recombination and Structure of Apomixis Chromosomal Regions;489
25.8;22.8 Why are Apomicts Not Diploid?;490
25.9;22.9 Conclusions;493
25.10;22.10 Appendix;494
25.11;References;496
26;23 Allelic Sequence Divergence in the Apomictic Boechera holboellii Complex;499
26.1;23.1 Introduction;499
26.2;23.2 Microsatellite Variation;502
26.2.1;23.2.1 Variation in the Repeat Regions;507
26.2.2;23.2.2 DNA Sequence Variation;508
26.3;23.3 Allelic Sequence Divergence (ASD) in Microsatellite Flanking Regions;508
26.4;23.4 Microsatellite Evolution in Sexual and Apomictic Lineages;510
26.5;23.5 Allelic Variation and Genome Duplication;513
26.6;23.6 Allelic Sequence Divergence (ASD);514
26.7;23.7 Conclusions;516
26.8;References;517
27;24 Asexual Reproduction in Infectious Diseases;521
27.1;24.1 Introduction;521
27.2;24.2 Infectious Diseases in the Living World;522
27.3;24.3 Clonality in Eukaryotic Infectious Agents;522
27.4;24.4 Studying Populations of Clonal Parasites;528
27.4.1;24.4.1 I Parasites;530
27.4.2;24.4.2 S parasites;531
27.4.3;24.4.3 A Parasites;532
27.5;24.5 Discussion;533
27.6;References;534
28;25 Whats in a Clone: The Rapid Evolution of Aphid Asexual Lineages in Relation to Geography, Host Plant Adaptation and Resistance to Pesticides;538
28.1;25.1 Introduction;538
28.2;25.2 The Nature of the Clone;540
28.2.1;25.2.1 Evidence for Variation Within the Clonal Genotype;540
28.2.2;25.2.2 Evidence for Variation Between Clonal Lineages;541
28.2.3;25.2.3 Evidence of Higher Level Lineage Evolution, Especially in Relation to the Host Plant;543
28.3;25.3 Clonal Persistence;544
28.4;25.4 Aerial Displacements;546
28.5;25.5 Geographic Populations;548
28.6;25.6 Clonal Selection;549
28.7;25.7 Concluding Remarks;551
28.8;25.8 Glossary;552
28.9;References;553
29;26 Epigenetic Mechanisms in Mammals and Their Effects on Cloning Procedures;561
29.1;26.1 Introduction;561
29.2;26.2 Is Cloning in Mammals Compatible with Normal Development?;563
29.3;26.3 Why is SCNT So Unsuccessful?;563
29.4;26.4 Epigenetic Inequality Between the Parental Genomes;565
29.5;26.5 Does Cloning Affect the Parental Epigenetic Information?;567
29.6;26.6 Strategies to Improve Cloning;570
29.7;26.7 Outlook;574
29.8;26.8 Glossary;576
29.9;References;576
30;27 Grapevine ( Vitis ssp.): Example of Clonal Reproduction in Agricultural Important Plants;582
30.1;27.1 Introduction;582
30.2;27.2 Clonality in Grapevine;584
30.2.1;27.2.1 Clonal Selection -- the Art of Bringing Clonal Variation to the Fields;584
30.2.2;27.2.2 Clonal Selection: An Example from V. vinifera cv. Pinot Noir;585
30.3;27.3 Sources of Clonal Variation in Grapevine Explored in Viticulture;586
30.3.1;27.3.1 Clonal Variation by Random Mutation;588
30.3.2;27.3.2 Clonal Variation by Transposition;589
30.3.3;27.3.3 Clonal Variation by Chimerism;591
30.4;27.4 Sex is Not Lost in Grapevine, But Rare;592
30.5;27.5 Advantages of Grapevine Clones;593
30.5.1;27.5.1 Do Grapevine Clones Make Wines Better?;593
30.6;27.6 Conclusions;594
30.7;27.7 Glossary;595
30.8;References;595
31;Index;600