Schmidt / Thews Human Physiology

1983
ISBN: 978-3-642-96714-6
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, eBook

Human Physiology is the English version of a time-honored German textbook first published by HERMANN REIN in 1936. We undertook the preparation of a completely revised 20th edition with the intention of making the book accessible to a wide range of English-speaking readers. The subject-matter was therefore organized so as to corre spond to the structuring of physiology courses in most countries of the world. The book is directed primarily at students of medicine. Its aim is to enable them to un derstand living processes in the human organism, providing the basis for the scientific understanding of pathological changes. The material was chosen to give the reader not only the knowledge required for passing examinations, but also information necessary for a subsequent professional career. For this reason special attention was devoted to pathophysiological aspects. We hope that the book will prove a useful reference on the present status of physiology for physicians in private and hospital practice as well as for its primary readership. The book should also serve biologists, biochemists, pharmacologists, pharmacists, and psy chologist as a source of information on the physiological principles underlying their disciplines.

Zielgruppe

Research

Autoren/Hrsg.

Schmidt, R.F.

Thews, G.

Weitere Mitwirkende

Biederman-Thorson, M.A.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

I. Nervous System.- 1 Function of Nerve Cells.- 1.1 Nerve Cells: General Structure and Function.- 1.2 The Resting Potential.- Measurement of the Membrane Potential.- Charge Distribution at the Membrane.- K + Distribution and Resting Potential.- Contribution of CI- to the Resting Potential.- The Passive Na+ Inflow.- The Sodium Pump.- Survey of the Ion Currents through the Membrane.- 1.3 The Action Potential.- Time Courses of Action Potentials.- The Origin of the Action Potential.- Kinetics of Ionic Currents during Excitation.- The Inactivation of the Na + System.- Ion Currents during the Afterpotentials.- 1.4 Extracellular Space and Neuroglia.- 1.5 Electrotonus and Stimulus.- Electrotonus in the Case of Homogeneous Current Distribution.- Electrotonus in Elongated Cells.- Stimulus and Threshold.- Threshold Shifts; Accommodation.- 1.6 Propagation of the Action Potential.- Measurement of Conduction Velocity.- Mechanisms of Conduction.- 1.7 The Generation of Excitation in Receptors.- The Receptor Potential.- Transformation of the Receptor Potential into Excitation.- Adaptation.- Coding of Stimulus Amplitude as Impulse Frequency.- 1.8 Axonal Transport.- Rapid Axonal Transport.- Retrograde Transport.- Mechanism of Transport.- Axonal Transport and Pathological Conditions.- 1.9 References.- 2 Muscle.- 2.1 The Molecular Mechanism of Contraction.- Sliding-Filament Theory.- The Chemomechanical Energy Transformations.- 2.2 The Regulation of Muscle Contraction.- Excitation-Contraction Coupling.- Regulation of Muscle Force in the Human Body.- 2.3 Muscle Mechanics.- Isometric Contractile Force and Muscle Length.- Relation between Load and Shortening of the Muscle.- Relation between Contraction Velocity and Force (Load).- 2.4 Muscle Energetics.- 2.5 Smooth Muscle.- 2.6 References.- 3 The Transmission of Excitation from Cell to Cell.- 3.1 The Neuromuscular Junction: A Chemical Synapse.- Structural Elements of the End Plate.- The End-Plate Potential.- The Release of Transmitter Substance.- The Transmitter Acetylcholine; Its Subsynaptic Receptors.- Neuromuscular Blockade.- 3.2 Central Excitatory Chemical Synapses.- The Excitation of the Motoneuron.- EPSPs in Other Nerve Cells.- 3.3 Central Inhibitory Chemical Synapses.- Postsynaptic Inhibition.- Presynaptic Inhibition.- 3.4 The Transmitters at Chemical Synapses.- Absence of Transmitter Specificity.- Acetylcholine as a Transmitter Substance in the Nervous System.- Adrenergic Transmitter Substances.- Amino Acids.- Other Possible Transmitters.- 3.5 Electrical Synapses.- 3.6 References.- 4 Physiology of Small Groups of Neurons; Reflexes.- 4.1 Typical Neuronal Circuits.- Divergence and Convergence.- Temporal and Spatial Facilitation; Occlusion.- Simple Inhibitory Circuits.- Activity-Enhancing Circuits and Mechanisms.- Synaptic Depression.- 4.2 Reflexes.- Components of a Reflex Arc; Reflex Time.- The Monosynaptic Reflex Arc.- Polysynaptic Reflexes.- 4.3 References.- 5 Motor Systems.- 5.1 Survey of the Neural Control of Posture and Movement.- 5.2 Spinal Motor Systems.- Receptors for the Spinal Sensory and Motor Systems.- Functions of the Muscle Spindles and Tendon Organs.- Polysynaptic Motor Reflexes.- Functions That Persist in the Isolated Spinal Cord.- 5.3 Motor Functions of the Brainstem.- Functional Anatomy of the Brainstem Motor Centers.- Motor Function in Decerebrate Animals.- Motor Functions of the Midbrain Animal.- 5.4 The Cerebellum.- Functional Anatomy of the Cerebellum.- The Cerebellar Cortex.- Afferent and Efferent Connections of the Cerebellum.- Functions of the Cerebellum.- Pathophysiological Aspects.- 5.5 Functions of the Motor Cortex and the Basal Ganglia.- Which Are the Motor Areas of the Cortex?.- Functional Organization of the Motor Cortex.- Efferent Connections of the Motor Cortex.- The Basal Ganglia.- Motor Cortex, Thalamus, Basal Ganglia and Movement.- The Drive to Act and the Movement Design.- 5.6 Pathophysiology of Motor Systems.- Peripheral Paralysis.- Pathophysiology ofthe Basal Ganglia.- Pathophysiology of the Motor Cortex and its Efferents.- 5.7 References.- 6 The Autonomic Nervous System.- 6.1 The Peripheral Autonomic Nervous System.- Anatomical Subdivisions.- The Actions of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Fibers on Effector Organs.- Neurohumoral Transmission in the Peripheral Autonomic Nervous System.- The Adrenal Medulla. The Systemic Actions of Adrenalin and Noradrenalin.- Synaptic Organization of the Peripheral Autonomic Nervous System.- 6.2 Central Organization of the Autonomic Nervous System in Spinal Cord and Brainstem.- Resting Activity in the Autonomic Nervous System.- Autonomic Reflexes of the Spinal Cord.- Autonomic Capabilities of the Brainstem.- 6.3 Micturition and Defecation.- Neuronal Control of Bladder Evacuation.- Neuronal Control of Bowel Evacuation.- 6.4 Genital Reflexes.- Genital Reflexes in the Man.- Genital Reflexes in the Woman.- Extragenital Reactions during the Sexual Response Cycle.- 6.5 Functions of the Hypothalamus.- Functional Anatomy of the Hypothalamus.- The Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System.- Hypothalamus and Cardiovascular System.- Hypothalamus and Behavior.- 6.6 Limbic System and Behavior.- Elements of the Limbic System.- Functions of the Limbic System.- Emotions and the Limbic System.- Monoaminergic Systems and Behavior.- 6.7 References.- 7 Integrative Functions of the Nervous System.- 7.1 General Physiology of the Cerebral Cortex.- Functional Histology of the Cerebral Cortex.- Electrophysiological Correlates of Cortical Activity.- The Electroencephalogram (EEG).- Cerebral Activity, Metabolism and Blood Flow.- 7.2 Waking and Sleeping.- Circadian Periodicity as the Basis of the Waking/Sleeping Rhythm.- Phenomenology of Waking and Sleeping.- Mechanisms of Waking and Sleeping.- 7.3 Neurophysiological Correlates of Consciousness and Speech.- Consciousness in Humans and Animals.- Functional and Structural Prerequisites for Consciousness.- Neurophysiological Aspects of Speech.- 7.4 Learning and Memory.- Human Memory.- Disturbances of Memory.- Neuronal Mechanisms.- Biochemical (Molecular) Mechanisms of the Engram.- Learning in the Autonomic Nervous System.- 7.5 The Frontal Lobes.- Inferences from Frontal-Lobe Lesions in Humans.- Frontal-Lobe Symptoms in Animal Experiments.- 7.6 References.- II. Sense Organs.- 8 General Sensory Physiology.- 8.1 Basic Concepts.- Objective and Subjective Sensory Physiology.- Basic Dimensions of Sensation.- 8.2 General Objective Sensory Physiology.- Specificity of Sense Organs.- Neuronal Connectivity in the Sensory System.- Receptive Field.- Intensity/Response Relationships.- 8.3 Stimulus and Behavior.- Conditioned Reflex and the Conditiorung Process.- Measurement of Dark Adaptation by Operant Conditioning.- 8.4 General Subjective Sensory Physiology.- Measurement of the Intensity of a Sensation or Perception.- Simultaneous Changes in Dimension.- Spatial Dimension of Sensation; Contrast.- Time Dimension of Sensation; Adaptation.- Affective and Intentional Aspects of Perception.- 8.5 References.- 9 Somatovisceral Sensibility: Processing in the Central Nervous System.- 9.1 Survey of the Central Structures for the Processing of Somatosensory Information.- The Specific and Nonspecific Afferent Somatosensory Systems.- 9.2 Connections of Afferents in the Spinal Cord.- Neurophysiology of the Dorsal Hom.- Ascending Pathways in the Spinal Cord.- 9.3 Somatosensory Functions of the Brainstem.- The Trigeminal Nerve and Its Connections.- The Reticular Formation.- 9.4 The Thalamus.- Anatomical and Functional Survey.- The Specific Thalamic Nucleus of the Somatosensory System.- 9.5 Somatosensory Projections Areas in the Cortex.- Topographic Organization of the Somatosensory Cortex.- Neuronal Organization of the Somatosensory Cortex.- Cortex and Perception.- 9.6 Control of Afferent Input in the Somatosensory System.- 9.7 References.- 10 Somatovisceral Sensibility: Cutaneous Senses, Proprioception, Pain.- 10.1 Mechanoreception.- Subjectively Measurable Properties of Mechanoreception.- Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors.- Receptor Function and Mechanoreception.- 10.2 Proprioception.- Qualities of Proprioception.- Proprioceptors.- 10.3 Thermoreception.- Cutaneous Temperature Sensations.- Cold and Warm Points; Spatial Thresholds.- Cold and Warm Receptors.- Receptor Function and Thermoreception.- Special Forms of Thermo reception.- 10.4 Somatic and Visceral Pain.- Qualities of Pain.- Measurement of the Intensity of Pain; Adaption to Pain.- Neurophysiological Basis of Pain.- 10.5 Special and Abnormal Forms of Pain; Pain Therapy.- Special Forms of Pain.- Peripheral and Central Disturbances of Nociception.- Pain Therapy.- 10.6 Reference.- 11 Vision and Eye Movements.- 11.1 Light and Sight.- The Duplicity Theory of Vision.- Active Seeing.- 11.2 The Eye and its Dioptric Apparatus.- The Structure of the Eye.- Tears.- The Production of an Image on the Retina.- Regulatory Processes in the Dioptric Apparatus.- Optical Defects and Refractive Anomalies.- Measurement of Refractive Errors and Prescription of Corrective Lenses.- Examination of the Interior of the Eye with the Ophthalmoscope.- Intraocular Pressure.- 11.3 Signal Reception and Processing in the Retina.- The Transduction Process in Vision.- The Corneoretinal Potential and the Electroretinogram (ERG).- Receptive Fields of Retinal Ganglion Cells.- Neurophysiological Basis of Simultaneous Contrast.- Light/Dark Adaptation, Overstimulation, Afterimages.- The Temporal Properties of Transmission in the Retina.- 11.4 Signal Processing in the Central Visual System.- The Central Visual Pathway.- Signal Processing in the Superior Colliculi.- Signal Processing in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN).- Signal Processing in the Visual Cortex.- Neurophysiological Bases of Shape Perception.- The Measurement of Visual Acuity.- Measurement of the Visual Field by Perimetry.- The Visual Evoked Potential (VEP).- 11.5 Binocular Vision.- 11.6 Color Vision.- Colors and the Measurement of Color.- Theories of Color Vision.- Disturbances of Color Vision.- 11.7 Eye Movements, Movement Perception and Sensorimotor Integration in Vision.- Measurement of Eye Movements.- The Binocular Coordination of Eye Movements.- The Temporal Properties of Eye Movements.- The Neuronal Control of Eye Movements.- Neurophysiology of the Control of Eye Movements and Gaze Direction.- The Perception of Movement.- Movement Perception and Motion of the Observer.- Eye Movements and Movement Perception.- 11.8 References.- 12 Physiology of the Sense of Equilibrium, Hearing and Speech.- 12.1 Physiology of the Sense of Equilibrium.- Physiology of the Peripheral Sensory Apparatus.- The Central Vestibular System.- The Vestibular Reflexes; Clinical Tests.- 12.2 Physiology of Hearing.- The Physical Properties of the Sound Stimulus (Acoustics).- Anatomical Bases of the Process of Hearing; the Peripheral Ear.- Psychophysics of Auditory Sensations.- The Role of the Middle Ear.- Auditory Processes in the Inner Ear.- The Central Auditory System.- Pathophysiology of Auditory Defects..- 12.3 Physiology of the Speech Apparatus.- Basic Properties of the Acoustic Signal Produced in Speaking.- Phonation.- Articulation.- Sound Spectrography.- Speech Impediments.- 12.4 References.- 13 Taste and Smell.- 13.1 Characterization of the Chemical Senses.- 13.2 The Sense of Taste.- Receptors and Neurons.- Gustatory Ability in Man.- 13.3 The Sense of Smell.- Receptors.- Odor Qualities.- Sensitivity, Coding.- Central Processing.- 13.4 References.- 14 Thirst and Hunger: General Sensations.- 14.1 Thirst.- The Origin of Thirst.- Receptors and Central Mechanisms.- The Quenching of Thirst.- Clinical Thirst.- 14.2 Hunger.- Origin of the Sensation of Hunger.- Satiety.- Psychological Factors in Hunger; Appetite.- Central Mechanisms of Hunger and Satiety.- 14.3 References.- 15 Cybernetic Aspects of the Nervous System and Sense Organs.- 15.1 The Sensory System in Terms ofInformation Theory.- The Concept ofInformation Theory.- The Ideal Receptor: Coding and Information Content.- The Technological Unit of Information.- Information Transmission in an Ideal Receptor.- Information Transmission in a Real Receptor.- Redundancy.- Neurophysiology and Psychophysics.- 15.2 The Spinal Motor System Interpreted as a Control Circuit.- The Terminology of Control Theory.- The Stretch Reflex as a Control System.- Change in Gain of the Length Controller.- Dynamic Properties of Control Systems.- Operation of a Servomechanism.- Concatenation of Segmental and Supraspinal Control Circuits.- 15.3 References.- III. Blood, Circulation and Respiration.- 16 Functions of the Blood.- 16.1 Basic Concepts.- Functions of the Blood.- Blood Volume.- Hematocrit.- 16.2 Blood Plasma.- Plasma Electrolytes.- Plasma Proteins.- Transported Plasma Components.- 16.3 Erythrocytes.- Number, Shape and Size.- Production, Life Span and Destruction.- Metabolism and Membrane Properties.- Special Physicochemical Properties.- 16.4 Leukocytes.- Properties Common to All Leukocytes.- Granulocytes.- Lymphocytes.- Monocytes.- 16.5 Thrombocytes.- 16.6 Hemostasis and Coagulation.- Basic Considerations.- Clotting Factors and the Process of Coagulation.- Fibrinolysis.- Disturbance and Inhibition of Coagulation, Tests of Clotting Activity.- 16.7 The Role of the Blood in Defense.- Basic Considerations.- Specific Defense Mechanisms.- Unspecific Defense.- 16.8 Human Blood Groups.- AB0 System.- Rh System.- Blood Transfusion.- 16.9 References.- 17 Function of the Heart.- 17.1 Structure and General Functional Aspects.- 17.2 Basic Processes of Excitation and Excitation-Contraction Coupling.- Origin and Spread of Excitation.- Characteristics of the Elementary Process of Excitation.- Relationships between Excitation and Contraction: Excitation-Contraction Coupling.- Autonomic Innervation; the Basic Actions of Autonomic Transmitters.- 17.3 Electrocardiogram.- Origin of the ECG.- Electrode Arrangements.- Limb Leads.- Chest Leads.- Use of the ECG in Diagnosis.- Examples of ECG Abnormality.- 17.4 The Mechanical Action of the Heart.- Action of the Heart Valves.- Sequence of Valve Action.- Functional Anatomy and Pattern of Ventricular Movement.- External Signals of Heart Activity.- Invasive Techniques: Intracardial Measurement.- 17.5 Dynamics of Adjustment to Changing Work Loads.- Pressure-Volume Relations in the Isolated Heart.- Autoregulatory Responses to Acute Volume and Pressure Loads.- Dynamics of the Innervated Heart in situ.- Adaptation ofthe Heart to Prolonged Exertion.- 17.6 Energetics of the Heartbeat.- Cardiac Work and Power.- Oxygen and Nutrient Consumption.- The Myocardial Blood Supply.- Cardiac Insufficiency.- 17.7 References.- 18 Functions of the Vascular System.- 18.1 Fundamentals of Hemodynamics.- The Physics of Blood Flow.- Types of Flow.- Relations between Volume Flow and Resistance to Flow.- 18.2 Properties of the Vessel Walls.- Structure of the Walls.- Transmural Pressure, Vessel Diameter and Wall Tension.- Pressure-Volume Relationships.- Pressure-Volume Flow Relationships in Vessels of Different Types.- 18.3 Functional Organization of the Vascular System.- The Functional Categories of Vessels.- Resistances in the Vascular System.- Blood Volume in the Vascular System.- 18.4 The Arterial Part of the Systemic Circulation.- Flow in the Arterial System.- Pressures in the Arterial System.- Effects of the Elasticity of Vessels.- Analysis of Pulse Contour.- 18.5 Venous Part of the Systemic Circulation.- Pressures and Flow in the Venous System.- Central Venous Pressure and Venous Return.- Effect of Gravity on the Pressures in the Vascular System.- Mechanisms to Increase Venous Return.- 18.6 Microcirculation.- The Terminal Vascular Bed.- Capillary Exchanges.- 18.7 The Lymphatic System.- 18.8 Regulation of Regional (Local)Blood Flow.- Basic Features of Regional Regulation.- Local Regulating Mechanisms.- Neural Regulation.- Chemical and Hormonal Effects.- 18.9 Regulation of the Overall Circulation.- Basic Features of General Circulatory Regulation.- Short-Term Control Mechanisms.- Baroreceptor Reflexes.- Cardiac Stretch-Receptor Reflexes.- Reflexes Involving Arterial Chemoreceptors.- Ischemic Response of the CNS.- Effects of Adrenalin and Noradrenalin on the Circulatory System.- Intermediate-Term Control Mechanisms.- Long-Term Control Mechanisms.- Central Control of the Circulation.- 18.10 The Pulmonary Circulation.- Hemodynamics of the Pulmonary Circulation.- Special Functional Features.- Regulatory Mechanisms in the Pulmonary Circuit.- 18.11 Circulatory Adjustments to Physiological and Pathological Circumstances.- Human Blood Pressure.- Rhythmic Fluctuations in Blood Pressure.- Effects of Posture.- Exercise.- Thermal Stress.- Loss of Blood.- Cardiovascular Shock.- 18.12 Circulation through Special Organs and its Control.- Coronary Circulation.- Cerebral Circulation.- Hepatic and Portal Circulation.- Renal Circulation.- Circulation in Skeletal Muscle.- Cutaneous Circulation.- Uterine and Fetal Circulations.- 18.13 Measurement of Pressure, Flow and Volume in the Vascular System.- Pressure Measurement.- Measurement of Flow.- Measurement of Blood Volume.- 18.14 References.- 19 Pulmonary Respiration.- 19.1 Breathing Movements.- Respiratory Excursions of the Thorax.- Function of the Respiratory Muscles.- Transmission of Thorax Motion to the Lung.- 19.2 Ventilation.- LI:lflg Volumes and Capacities.- Measurement of Lung Volumes and Volumes Respired.- Anatomical and Functional Dead Space.- Alveolar Ventilation.- Artificial Respiration.- 19.3 Mechanical Factors in Breathing.- Elasticity of Lung and Thorax.- Nonelastic Resistances.- Pressure-Volume Relations in the Breathing Cycle.- Tests of Respiratory Mechanics.- 19.4 Exchange of Gases.- Alveolar Gas Concentrations.- Alveolar Partial Pressures.- Diffusion of Respiratory Gases.- Net Gas Exchange in Normal and Pathological Conditions.- 19.5 The Control of Respiration.- Respiratory Centers.- Mechanical Control of Respiration.- Chemical Control of Respiration.- Other Respiratory Drives.- 19.6 References.- 20 Blood Gas Transport and Acid-Base Balance.- 20.1 The Structure and Properties of Hemoglobin.- Structure of the Hemoglobin Molecule.- Light Absorption by Hemoglobin.- Hemoglobin Concentration in Blood; Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin.- 20.2 The O2-Transport Function of the Blood.- Physical Solubility of Gases.- The Binding of Oxygen to Hemoglobin.- Factors Mfecting the O2 Dissociation Curve.- Hemoglobin-Carbon Monoxide Binding.- 20.3 The CO2-Transport Function of the Blood.- Forms of CO2 Transport.- CO2 Dissociation Curves.- 20.4 The Acid-Base Status of the Blood.- The Blood pH.- The Buffer Properties of the Blood.- pH-Regulating Mechanisms.- 20.5 References.- 21 Tissue Respiration.- 21.1 Metabolism and Oxygen Requirements of the Tissues.- Cellular Metabolism and Energy Conversion.- Biological Oxidation in the Mitochondria.- Tissue Oxygen Requirements.- 21.2 Tissue Oxygen Supply.- Tissue Oxygen Reserves.- O2 Availability and Utilization.- Respiratory Gas Exchange in the Tissues.- O2 Partial Pressures in the Tissues.- 21.3 Regulation of O2 Supply and Effects of O2 Deficiency.- Mechanisms for Matching Supply to Demand.- The Causes oflnadequate O2 Supply.- O2 Therapy; O2 Poisoning.- Reversible and Irreversible Disturbance in Acute Tissue Anoxia.- 21.4 References.- IV. Metabolism, Digestion and Excretion. Endocrine Regulation.- 22 Energy Balance.- 22.1 Energy Expenditure.- 22.2 Parameters of Metabolism.- Metabolic Parameters of Cells.- Metabolic Parameters of the Whole Organism.- 22.3 Measurement Techniques.- Direct Measurement of Metabolic Rate.- Indirect Measurement of Metabolic Rate.- Measurement of the Metabolic Rate of Single Organs.- 22.4 Measurement of the Oxygen Uptake of the Whole Body.- Closed Systems.- Open Systems.- 22.5 Diagnostic Significance of Energy Expenditure.- 22.6 References.- 23 Heat Balance and the Regulation of Body Temperature.- 23.1 Heat Production, Body Temperature and Body Size.- 23.2 The Temperature of the Human Body.- Local Temperature Differences (Temperature Gradients).- Periodic Fluctuations in Core Temperature.- Body Temperature during Exercise.- 23.3 Heat Loss.- Internal Heat Flow.- External Heat Flow.- Environmental Factors and Thermal Comfort...- 23.4 The Regulation of Body Temperature.- Effector Outputs in Thermoregulation.- Thermoreception.- Integrative Processes and Central Nervous Structures for Thermoregulation.- The Set Point and its Adjustment.- 23.5 Ontogenetic and Adaptive Changes in Thermoregulation.- Thermoregulation in the Newborn.- Long-Term Adaptation to the Environment.- 23.6 Pathophysiology of Thermoregulation.- Fever.- Failure of Thermoregulation at Extreme Temperatures.- 23.7 References.- 24 Work Physiology; Environmental Physiology.- 24.1 Fundamentals of Work Physiology.- Load, Performance and Strain.- Types of Performance.- Ergometry.- 24.2 Adjustments to Physical Loads.- Adjustments of the Dynamically Working Musculature.- Cardiovascular Parameters during Dynamic Work.- Oxygen Uptake and Respiration during Dynamic Work.- Blood Parameters during Dynamic Work.- Thermoregulation during Dynamic Work.- Hormonal Regulation during Dynamic Work.- Adjustments to Static Work.- 24.3 Responses of the Organism to Non-Physical Loads.- Responses to Psychological Loads.- 24.4 Limits of Performance Capacity.- Specific Performance Limits.- 24.5 Fatigue.- Fatigue and Recovery.- Physical Fatigue.- Psychological Fatigue.- Overloading and Exhaustion.- Feedback of Performance.- 24.6 Training and Adaption.- Special Forms of Training.- Degree of Adaptation.- Variability in Performance Capacity.- Shift Work.- Deficiency of Movement; Physical Therapy.- 24.7 Performance and Aptitude Tests.- Primary Test Criteria.- The Problem of the Norm.- Performance Tests.- Interpretation of Performance Tests.- 24.8 High-Altitude Physiology.- Oxygen Deficiency.- Short-Term Adjustment to High Altitude.- Acclimation to High Altitude.- Air and Space Travel.- 24.9 Diving.- Diving without Equipment.- Diving with Equipment.- Orientation under Water.- 24.10 References.- 25 Nutrition.- 25.1 Foods: Their Composition and Function.- Foodstuffs.- Vitamins.- Water, Salts, Trace Elements.- Condiments and Crude Fiber.- Residues.- 25.2 Nutritional Requirements; Symptoms of Deficiency and Overdosage.- Foodstuffs.- Vitamins.- Water, Salts, Trace Elements.- 25.3 Utilization of Foodstuffs; Dietetics.- Utilization.- Balanced Diet.- Special Diets.- 25.4 Evaluation of Body Weight and Body Surface Area.- Obesity as a Risk Factor.- Composition of the Body.- Surface Area of the Body.- 25.5 References.- 26 Functions of the Gastrointestinal Canal.- 26.1 Gastrointestinal Motility and Secretion.- Mouth and Esophagus.- Stomach.- Small Intestine.- Large Intestine and Rectum.- 26.2 Digestion and Absorption.- Digestion and Absorption of Protein.- Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates.- Digestion and Absorption of Fats.- Absorption of Vitamins, Water and Minerals.- 26.3 References.- 27 The Function of the Kidneys.- 27.1 Fundamentals of Renal Physiology.- Outline of Kidney Anatomy.- Features of Kidney Function.- Renal Excretion and the Clearance Concept.- 27.2 Renal Circulation.- Blood Flow through the Kidneys.- Oxygen Consumption and Metabolism of the Kidney.- 27.3 The Glomerular Filtration Process.- Morphological and Biophysical Fundamentals.- Glomerular Filtration Rate and Glomerular Filtrate.- 27.4 Tubular Transport Processes.- Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion of Organic Substances.- Tubular Reabsorption of Water and Electrolytes.- Hormonal Influences on Tubular Ion Transport and Water Reabsorption.- 27.5 The Concentrating of Urine in the Countercurrent System of the Renal Medulla.- 27.6 Regulatory Function of the Kidneys.- Regulation of the Osmotic Concentration of the Extracellular Fluid.- Regulation of the Extracellular Fluid Volume.- Regulation of Acid-Base Balance by the Kidneys.- 27.7 Renal Pathophysiology.- 27.8 References.- 28 Water Balance; Transport of Fluids and Solutes.- 28.1 Water Balance.- Body Water and Water Turnover.- Fluid Compartments in the Body.- 28.2 Biophysical Bases of the Transport of Fluids and Solutes in the Body.- Diffusion, Osmosis and Filtration.- Equilibrium Distribution of Ions.- Special Features of Transport through Biological Membranes.- 28.3 References.- 29 Functions of the Endocrine System.- 29.1 General Endocrinology.- Terminology.- Functional Significance and Mode of Action of Hormones.- Experimental Techniques.- 29.2 The Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal System.- Neurohypophysis and Functionally Associated Hypothalamic Nuclei.- Adenohypophysis and the Hypophysiotropic Zone of the Hypothalamus.- Hormones of the Adenohypophysis.- 29.3 The Endocrine Glands and Hormones Controlled by the Adenohypophysis.- The Adrenal Cortex and the Glucocorticoids.- The Thyroid Gland and the Hormones Thyroxin and Triiodothyronine.- The Gonads and the Sex Hormones.- 29.4 The Sympathico-Adrenal System.- Hormones of the System and Sites of Production.- Actions of Noradrenalin and Adrenalin.- Control of the Secretion of Noradrenalin and Adrenalin.- 29.5 Pancreatic Hormones and the Control of Blood Glucose.- Islet-Cell Hormones.- Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration.- 29.6 The Hormonal Control of Mineral Balance.- Na + and K + Balance.- Calcium and Phosphate Balance.- 29.7 Gastrointestinal Hormones.- 29.8 Peripheral Topics in Endocrinology.- “Tissue Hormones”.- Polypeptides and Amines; the APUD System.- Erythropoietin, Prostaglandins.- Organs with Uncertain or Unclear Endocrine Function.- 29.9 References.- 30 Appendix. Physiological Units.- 31 Subject Index.