Qureshi / Hodge / Vertes Biorefineries

Integrated Biochemical Processes for Liquid Biofuels
1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-444-59504-1
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 296 Seiten

Biorefineries outlines the processes and steps to successfully scale up production of two types of biofuels, butanol and ethanol, from cellulosic residues for commercial purposes. It covers practical topics, including biomass availability, pretreatment, fermentation, and water recycling, as well as policy and economic factors. This reflects the unique expertise of the editor team, whose backgrounds range from wood and herbaceous feedstocks to process economics and industrial expertise. The strategies presented in this book help readers to design integrated and efficient processes to reduce the cost of production and achieve an economically viable end product - Outlines the economic benefits of designing a single operational process. - Includes all currently available processes on pretreatment, fermentation and recovery - Covers all pretreatment, fermentation, and product recovery options - Focuses on biofuels but acts as a stepping stone to develop cost-efficient processes for an array of commodity chemicals

Autoren/Hrsg.

Qureshi, Nasib

Hodge, Chemical Engineering

Vertes, Alain

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Biorefineries: Integrated Biochemical Processes for Liquid Biofuels;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;Contributors;14
6;Preface;16
7;About the Editors;18
8;Part I: Cellulosic Biomass Processing & Biorefinery Road Map;20
8.1;Chapter 1: An Overview of Existing Individual Unit Operations;22
8.1.1;1.1. Introduction;22
8.1.2;1.2. Biochemical Processes;24
8.1.2.1;1.2.1. Biomass Pretreatment Technologies and Their Challenges;26
8.1.2.2;1.2.2. Physical Pretreatment;28
8.1.2.3;1.2.3. Chemical and Physicochemical Pretreatment;29
8.1.2.4;1.2.4. Biological Pretreatment;30
8.1.3;1.3. Enzymatic Hydrolysis;30
8.1.3.1;1.3.1. Enzymatic Processes;30
8.1.3.2;1.3.2. Factors Affecting the Enzymatic Process;31
8.1.4;1.4. Ethanol Production by Fermentation;31
8.1.4.1;1.4.1. Process Requirements for Ethanol-Fermenting Organisms;32
8.1.4.2;1.4.2. Fermentation Operations and Processes;33
8.1.4.3;1.4.3. Fermentation Inhibitors;33
8.1.4.4;1.4.4. Product Recovery;34
8.1.4.5;1.4.5. Methods for Breaking the Azeotrope;35
8.1.5;1.5. Butanol Production by Fermentation;35
8.1.5.1;1.5.1. Processes for n -Butanol Production;35
8.1.5.2;1.5.2. Fermentation Modes of Operation;37
8.1.5.3;1.5.3. Recovery and In Situ Separation;37
8.1.5.4;1.5.4. Detoxification of Inhibitory Compounds;39
8.1.5.5;1.5.5. Strain Improvement;40
8.1.6;1.6. Thermochemical Conversion;41
8.1.6.1;1.6.1. Initial Processes—Preparation Stages;41
8.1.6.2;1.6.2. Thermochemical Treatment—Gasification;41
8.1.6.3;1.6.3. Cleaning and Conditioning of Syngas;42
8.1.6.4;1.6.4. Product Manufacturing Stage—Catalytic Reaction and Syngas Fermentation;43
8.1.6.5;1.6.5. Syngas Fermentation;43
8.1.7;1.7. Perspectives;44
8.1.8;References;45
8.2;Chapter 2: Biomass for Biorefining: Resources, Allocation, Utilization, and Policies;56
8.2.1;2.1. Introduction;56
8.2.1.1;2.1.1. Role of Biomass;56
8.2.1.2;2.1.2. Biomass Availability;57
8.2.1.3;2.1.3. Allocation of Supply;58
8.2.1.4;2.1.4. Overcoming Utilization Issues;58
8.2.1.5;2.1.5. Policies and Statutes;59
8.2.2;2.2. Biomass Resources;59
8.2.2.1;2.2.1. Types of Biomass;59
8.2.2.2;2.2.2. Supply of Biomass;61
8.2.2.3;2.2.3. Production of Biomass;63
8.2.3;2.3. Biomass Allocation;64
8.2.3.1;2.3.1. Uses of Biomass;64
8.2.3.2;2.3.2. Biomass Logistics;66
8.2.4;2.4. Biomass Utilization;66
8.2.4.1;2.4.1. Pretreatment of Biomass;66
8.2.4.2;2.4.2. Genetic Modification of Biomass;67
8.2.4.3;2.4.3. Biomass Sites of Use;68
8.2.5;2.5. Biomass Policies;69
8.2.5.1;2.5.1. Biofuel Policies;69
8.2.5.2;2.5.2. Land Use and GHG Requirements;70
8.2.5.3;2.5.3. Regulation of Genetic Engineering;71
8.2.6;2.6. Perspectives;73
8.2.7;References;74
8.3;Chapter 3: Biorefinery Roadmaps;78
8.3.1;3.1. Introduction: The Biorefinery Vision for Energy, Chemical, and Material Sustainability;78
8.3.2;3.2. Sustainability as a New Business Model;82
8.3.3;3.3. Achieving Integrated Processing;84
8.3.4;3.4. Perspectives;86
8.3.5;References;86
8.4;Chapter 4: Integration of (Hemi)-Cellulosic Biofuels Technologies with Chemical Pulp Production;92
8.4.1;4.1. Integrated Forest Biorefinery Concepts;92
8.4.1.1;4.1.1. Woody Biomass as a Multiproduct Feedstock;92
8.4.1.2;4.1.2. Opportunities for Integration;93
8.4.1.3;4.1.3. Recovery and Utilization of Non-Hemicellulose Fractions;94
8.4.2;4.2. Hemicelluloses Derived from Chemical Pulping Processes;98
8.4.2.1;4.2.1. Hemicelluloses;98
8.4.2.2;4.2.2. Hemicelluloses from Thermomechanical Pulping and Chemomechanical Pulping;99
8.4.2.3;4.2.3. Hemicelluloses from Sulfite Pulping;100
8.4.2.4;4.2.4. Hemicelluloses from Dissolving Pulp Production;101
8.4.2.5;4.2.5. Hemicellulose Preextractions Prior to Pulping: Autohydrolysis;102
8.4.2.6;4.2.6. Hemicellulose Preextractions Prior to Pulping: Alkaline Extraction;105
8.4.3;4.3. Integration of Hemicellulose Recovery and Utilization;107
8.4.3.1;4.3.1. Processing Options for the Generation of Products from Recovered Polymeric Hemicellulose;107
8.4.3.2;4.3.2. Processing Options for the Generation of Products from Hemicellulose Monomers;108
8.4.4;4.4. Perspectives;110
8.4.5;References;110
8.5;Chapter 5: Integrated Processes for Product Recovery;120
8.5.1;5.1. Introduction;120
8.5.2;5.2. Alternative Product Recovery Techniques;121
8.5.2.1;5.2.1. Adsorption;121
8.5.2.2;5.2.2. Liquid-liquid Extraction;123
8.5.2.3;5.2.3. Pervaporation;125
8.5.2.3.1;5.2.3.1. Liquid membranes;125
8.5.2.3.2;5.2.3.2. Silicalite composite membranes;126
8.5.2.4;5.2.4. Vacuum Fermentation and Simultaneous Recovery;126
8.5.2.5;5.2.5. Gas Stripping;127
8.5.2.6;5.2.6. Use of Other Separation Techniques;128
8.5.3;5.3. Integrated Product Recovery Processes;129
8.5.3.1;5.3.1. Ethanol;129
8.5.3.2;5.3.2. Butanol;130
8.5.3.3;5.3.3. 2,3-Butanediol;131
8.5.3.3.1;5.3.3.1. Recovery by pervaporation;131
8.5.3.3.2;5.3.3.2. Recovery by phase salting out;132
8.5.3.3.3;5.3.3.3. Removal of butanediol by extraction;133
8.5.3.3.4;5.3.3.4. Recovery of 2,3-butanediol by solvent extraction and pervaporation;133
8.5.4;5.4. Perspectives;134
8.5.5;Acknowledgments;134
8.5.6;References;135
9;Part II: Cellulosic Ethanol;138
9.1;Chapter 6: Development of Growth-Arrested Bioprocesses with Corynebacterium glutamicum for Cellulosic Ethanol Production from C;140
9.1.1;6.1. Introduction;140
9.1.2;6.2. What is a Growth-Arrested bioprocess?;141
9.1.2.1;6.2.1. Characteristics of Growth-Arrested Bioprocesses;141
9.1.2.2;6.2.2. Process Design Options for Growth-Arrested Bioprocesses;142
9.1.3;6.3. Research and Development for Cellulosic Ethanol Production by C. glutamicum ;144
9.1.3.1;6.3.1. Metabolic Engineering for Highly Efficient Conversion of Sugar Mixtures;145
9.1.3.2;6.3.2. Tolerance to Fermentation Inhibitors Derived from Lignocellulosic Biomass;146
9.1.4;6.4. Other Applications of Growth-Arrested Bioprocess in Biorefineries;147
9.1.4.1;6.4.1. Amino Acids;147
9.1.4.2;6.4.2. Isobutanol;151
9.1.4.3;6.4.3. D-Lactic Acid;152
9.1.5;6.5. Perspectives;153
9.1.6;References;154
9.2;Chapter 7: Consolidated Bioprocessing for Ethanol Production;160
9.2.1;7.1. Introduction;160
9.2.2;7.2. Biochemical Processes for Ethanol Production from Cellulosic Biomass;161
9.2.2.1;7.2.1. Pretreatment;161
9.2.2.2;7.2.2. Cellulase Production;161
9.2.2.3;7.2.3. Enzymatic Hydrolysis;163
9.2.2.4;7.2.4. Microbial Fermentation;163
9.2.2.5;7.2.5. Product Recovery;165
9.2.3;7.3. Development of Biomass Processing Configurations;165
9.2.4;7.4. Aspects of Consolidated Bioprocessing;166
9.2.4.1;7.4.1. Economic Benefits of CBP;166
9.2.4.1.1;7.4.1.1. The effects of microbe-enzyme synergy in CBP;167
9.2.4.1.2;7.4.1.2. The use of thermophiles in CBP;167
9.2.5;7.5. Approaches to Developing CBP-enabling Microorganisms;168
9.2.5.1;7.5.1. The Native Strategy for Developing CBP-enabling Microorganisms;168
9.2.5.2;7.5.2. The Recombinant Strategy for Developing CBP-enabling Microorganisms;170
9.2.6;7.6. Perspectives;172
9.2.7;References;172
9.3;Chapter 8: Integration of Ethanol Fermentation with Second Generation Biofuels Technologies;180
9.3.1;8.1. Integration of Fermentation into Cellulosic Biofuel Processes;180
9.3.2;8.2. Fermentation Approaches Employed in First-Generation Ethanol Processes;182
9.3.2.1;8.2.1. Processes for First-Generation Ethanol;182
9.3.2.2;8.2.2. Mode of Operation and Cell Recycle;183
9.3.3;8.3. Integration of Lignocellulose Hydrolyzate Fermentation;186
9.3.3.1;8.3.1. Hydrolyzate-Derived Inhibitors;187
9.3.3.2;8.3.2. Xylose Fermentation;188
9.3.3.3;8.3.3. High-Solids Integration and Fermentation Mode of Operation;189
9.3.3.4;8.3.4. Examples of Fermentation Integration in Cellulosic Biofuel Processes;190
9.3.4;8.4. Aerobic Yeast Cultivation for the Production of Cell Mass;191
9.3.4.1;8.4.1. Production of Yeast Cell Mass from Sugar and Starch Streams;191
9.3.4.2;8.4.2. Generation of Cell Mass from Hydrolyzates;193
9.3.5;8.5. Case Study: Aerobic Cultivation of S. cerevisiae TMB-3400-FT30-3 on Dilute Acid-Pretreated Softwood Hydrolyzate;194
9.3.5.1;8.5.1. Media Requirements for Aerobic Growth;195
9.3.6;8.6. Perspectives;197
9.3.7;References;198
10;Part III: Cellulosic Butanol;208
10.1;Chapter 9: Mixed Sugar Fermentation by Clostridia and Metabolic Engineering for Butanol Production;210
10.1.1;9.1. Introduction;210
10.1.2;9.2. Mixed-Sugar Fermentation by Solventogenic Clostridia;213
10.1.3;9.3. Metabolic Engineering of Solventogenic Clostridia for Butanol Production;215
10.1.3.1;9.3.1. Simultaneous and Efficient Use of Pentose and Hexose Sugars;215
10.1.3.2;9.3.2. Production of Enhanced Levels of Butanol;216
10.1.3.3;9.3.3. Elimination of Acetone Production;218
10.1.4;9.4. Perspectives;219
10.1.5;Acknowledgements;220
10.1.6;References;220
10.2;Chapter 10: Integrated Bioprocessing and Simultaneous Product Recovery for Butanol Production;224
10.2.1;10.1. Introduction;224
10.2.2;10.2. Recovery of Butanol by Adsorption;226
10.2.2.1;10.2.1. Use of Glucose;227
10.2.3;10.3. Recovery of Butanol by Extraction;227
10.2.3.1;10.3.1. Use of Glucose;227
10.2.3.2;10.3.2. Use of Whey Permeate;229
10.2.3.3;10.3.3. Extractive Production of Butanol from Lignocelluloses;230
10.2.4;10.4. Recovery of Butanol by Perstraction;231
10.2.4.1;10.4.1. Use of Glucose;231
10.2.4.2;10.4.2. Use of Potato Waste;231
10.2.4.3;10.4.3. Use of Whey Permeate or Lactose;231
10.2.4.4;10.4.4. Use of Lignocellulosic Biomass;232
10.2.4.4.1;10.4.4.1. Simultaneous saccharification, fermentation, and recovery;232
10.2.5;10.5. Separation of Butanol by Gas Stripping;232
10.2.5.1;10.5.1. Use of Whey Permeate;232
10.2.5.2;10.5.2. Use of Glucose;233
10.2.5.3;10.5.3. Use of Cellulosic Hydrolyzates and Cellulosic Biomass;234
10.2.6;10.6. Recovery of Butanol by Reverse Osmosis;234
10.2.6.1;10.6.1. Use of Glucose;234
10.2.7;10.7. Recovery of Butanol by Pervaporation;235
10.2.7.1;10.7.1. Use of Glucose;235
10.2.7.2;10.7.2. Use of Whey Permeate;236
10.2.8;10.8. Recovery of Butanol Using a Vacuum;237
10.2.8.1;10.8.1. Use of Glucose;237
10.2.9;10.9. Process Economics of Butanol Production;237
10.2.10;10.10. Perspectives;238
10.2.11;References;238
10.3;Chapter 11: Integrated Production of Butanol from Glycerol;244
10.3.1;11.1. Introduction: Glycerol Glut;244
10.3.1.1;11.1.1. Value-Added Conversion of Glycerol;245
10.3.2;11.2. Glycerol-to-Butanol Conversion;246
10.3.2.1;11.2.1. Improving Product Yield and Productivity;247
10.3.2.2;11.2.2. Butanol Toxicity and Extractive Fermentation;248
10.3.3;11.3. Integrated Biorefinery;249
10.3.4;11.4. Perspectives;250
10.3.5;References;250
11;Part IV: Process Economics & Farm-Based Biorefinery;254
11.1;Chapter 12: Process Economics of Renewable Biorefineries: Butanol and Ethanol Production in Integrated Bioprocesses from Lignoc;256
11.1.1;12.1. Introduction;256
11.1.2;12.2. Program for Material and Energy Balance and Economic Analysis;258
11.1.3;12.3. Process Development and Economics of Butanol Production from Corn;258
11.1.4;12.4. Process Economics of Butanol Production from Glycerol;262
11.1.5;12.5. Economics of Butanol Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass;264
11.1.6;12.6. Economics of Ethanol Production from Corn and Lignocellulosic Biomass;266
11.1.7;12.7. Perspectives;270
11.1.8;Acknowledgments;271
11.1.9;References;271
11.2;Chapter 13: Integrated Farm-Based Biorefinery;274
11.2.1;13.1. Introduction;274
11.2.2;13.2. The integrated farm-Based Biorefinery (IFBBR);276
11.2.3;13.3. Biological Conversion Chemistry;277
11.2.4;13.4. Mass-and-Energy Balances;280
11.2.5;13.5. Advantages of the IFBBR System over Corn Stover Ethanol Production;284
11.2.6;13.6. Perspectives;285
11.2.7;Acknowledgment;288
11.2.8;References;288
12;Index;290

Leseproben

Chapter 2

Biomass for Biorefining

Resources, Allocation, Utilization, and Policies

Stephen R. Hughes1,*,†; Nasib Qureshi2    1 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research (NCAUR), Renewable Product Technology Research Unit, Peoria, Illinois, USA
2 USDA, ARS, NCAUR, Bioenergy Research Unit, Peoria, Illinois, USA
† Mention of trade names or commercial products is solely for the purpose of providing scientific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
* Corresponding author: [e-mail]

Abstract

This chapter discusses the importance of biomass in the development of renewable energy, the availability and allocation of biomass, its preparation for use in biorefineries, and the policies affecting biomass use. Bioenergy development depends on maximizing the amount of biomass obtained from agriculture and forestry, while prioritizing nature conservation and the protection of soils, water, and biodiversity. The major challenges facing the commercial production of biofuels and bioproducts are sustainable biomass availability and capital-intensive biomass processing facilities. The two main competitors for biomass resources are biopower and biofuels, and their future status depends on the federal and state regulations governing them. A combination of policies encouraging infrastructure investment and supporting favorable market conditions appears to be the most effective means for establishing an economically sustainable biofuel supply chain. Understanding the extent of biomass resources, their potential in energy markets, and the most economic utilization of biomass is important in the development of policies that improve energy security and mitigate climate change.

Keywords:

Biomass availability

Renewable energy

Sustainable biofuel

Biomass markets

Energy security

2.1 Introduction

The estimated biomass available from agricultural and forest resources in the United States ranges from 0.8 to 1.3 billion dry tons by 2030, assuming energy crop productivity increases from 2% to 4% annually. This amount is sufficient to displace more than 30% of U.S. petroleum consumption. However, major improvements in yield, sustainability, harvesting, collection, and suitability for conversion to bioenergy and bioproducts are needed to fulfill the potential of biomass as a replacement for petroleum-based energy. This goal will require an integrated and interdisciplinary approach combining aspects of biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, bioprocess engineering, and disciplines related to crop production and land use.

2.1.1 Role of Biomass

Worldwide concern about energy security, energy cost, and the environmental impact of expanding energy use has accelerated the development of renewable energy sources and of measures to reduce energy demand. Increased interest in the production of biofuels and bioproducts from biomass arises from the promise of improving energy security, achieving sustainable economic development, and mitigating climate change by substituting bioenergy for petroleum or fossil-fuel energy [1]. Renewable energy accounted for almost 13% of the world’s primary energy supply in 2008, with biomass contributing more than 10%. Technologies for converting biomass to fuels and other products continue to become increasingly sophisticated. Bioenergy development depends on maximizing the amount of biomass obtained from agriculture and forestry, while prioritizing nature conservation and the protection of soils, water, and biodiversity [2]. The success of bioenergy as a replacement for petroleum energy is determined primarily by cost of raw materials and manufacturing. Raw material supply is a key concern with scale and land use implications important for bioenergy. The idea that energy can be obtained from biomass with a positive energy balance and at a scale large enough to have a substantial impact on sustainability and security objectives is gaining wide acceptance. Production of ethanol and other biofuels from biomass is a major focus. Additional environmental benefits, including greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation, improved soil fertility, preservation of water quality, and enhanced wildlife habitats, are also potential results [3].

2.1.2 Biomass Availability

The major challenges facing the commercial production of biofuels and bioproducts are sustainable biomass availability and capital-intensive biomass processing facilities [4]. Feedstock availability is crucial for the feasibility and economic viability of every biomass processing operation. The estimated biomass available from agricultural and forest resources in the United States, at a farm gate or forest roadside price of $60 per dry ton, ranges from 0.6 to 1.0 billion tons by 2022 and from 0.8 to 1.3 billion dry tons by 2030, depending on the assumed dedicated energy crop productivity (in this estimate from 1% to 4% increase over current yields). The quantity decreases significantly as the price decreases to $40 per dry ton. This estimated amount is sufficient to displace more than 30% of U.S. petroleum consumption [5]. Biomass feedstocks must provide high energy content, and they must be easy to grow and harvest in large quantities. Bioengineers must also identify varieties of biomass feedstocks that require minimal water, fertilizer, land use, and other inputs. Energy crops are the largest potential source of biomass feedstock, with potential energy crop supplies varying considerably depending on assumed productivity [5]. Targeting marginal or degraded land for growing biomass feedstocks can reduce the change in land use associated with bioenergy expansion and enhance carbon sequestration in soils [6,7]. However, major improvements in yield, sustainability, harvesting, collection, and suitability for conversion to bioenergy and bioproducts are needed to fulfill the potential of biomass to replace petroleum-based energy [4,8]. Given the finite land resources and competing land uses, achieving high fuel yield per unit of land is vital for the sustainable production of large quantities of biomass on a feasible amount of land for industrial-scale production of biofuels and bioproducts. This goal will require an integrated and interdisciplinary approach combining aspects of biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, and disciplines related to crop production and land use [3]. The techniques of genetic engineering are being used to produce the optimum petroleum replacement feedstock as well as to modify biomass so it is easier to process [9–11]. Transgenic approaches could transform plants to improve growth rates of biomass, particularly trees, more quickly and less expensively than using traditional breeding approaches. As additional transgenic bioenergy crops are generated and tested, different strategies have been developed to move genetically modified organisms through the regulatory process [12,13].

2.1.3 Allocation of Supply

Biomass has many competing uses, including liquid fuels, electricity, hydrogen, and chemicals. Its allocation for fuel, power, and bioproducts depends on the characteristics of the markets for each of these products, their interactions, and the policies affecting these markets [14]. The two main competitors for biomass resources are biopower and biofuels, and the future status of these products depends primarily on the federal and state regulations governing them. The market shares of other end-uses, such as traditional heating, exports, and biobased products, including chemicals and plastics, are not predicted to substantially increase [4]. However, if substantial technological breakthroughs are made in the areas of bioplastics or bioacrylics, biobased products could demand a larger fraction of overall biomass resources in the future. A combination of favorable market conditions appears to be the most effective means for establishing an economically sustainable biofuel supply chain. These conditions include competitive pricing of biofuel relative to petroleum-based fuels, sufficient biofuel producer incentives, strong investment in infrastructure for the distribution and dispensing of biofuels, and widespread use of flexible-fuel vehicles [15]. Biofuels are considered to be important technologies for both developing and industrialized countries for energy security reasons, environmental concerns, foreign exchange savings, and rural development. Biomass is an attractive feedstock for biofuels because it is a renewable resource that can be sustainably developed for the future, it has positive environmental properties, and it has significant economic potential. In the most biomass-intensive scenario, it contributes one-half of the total energy demand in developing countries by 2050 [16].

2.1.4 Overcoming Utilization Issues

The energy content and energy density of biomass vary with the type of biomass and are dictated by plant and cell-wall structure. In general, woody biomass, both softwood and hardwood, has a higher lignin and cellulose content and density than agricultural biomass such as switchgrass, corn stover, and straw. Energy inputs required for waste biomass such as corn...