Pacheco-Torgal / Labrincha / Leonelli Handbook of Alkali-Activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes

1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-1-78242-288-4
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 852 Seiten

Reihe: Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering

This book provides an updated state-of-the-art review on new developments in alkali-activation. The main binder of concrete, Portland cement, represents almost 80% of the total CO2 emissions of concrete which are about 6 to 7% of the Planet's total CO2 emissions. This is particularly serious in the current context of climate change and it could get even worse because the demand for Portland cement is expected to increase by almost 200% by 2050 from 2010 levels, reaching 6000 million tons/year. Alkali-activated binders represent an alternative to Portland cement having higher durability and a lower CO2 footprint. - Reviews the chemistry, mix design, manufacture and properties of alkali-activated cement-based concrete binders - Considers performance in adverse environmental conditions. - Offers equal emphasis on the science behind the technology and its use in civil engineering.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pacheco-Torgal, F.

Labrincha, Joao

Leonelli, C.

Palomo, A.

Chindaprasit, P.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Cover;1
2;Handbook of Alkali-activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;List of contributors;16
6;Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering;18
7;Foreword;22
8;1 Introduction to Handbook of Alkali-activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes;24
8.1;1.1 Brief overview on alkali-activated cement-based binders (AACB);24
8.2;1.2 Potential contributions of AACB for sustainable development and eco-efficient construction;30
8.3;1.3 Outline of the book;33
8.4;References;36
9;Part One Chemistry, mix design and manufacture of alkali-activated cement-based concrete binders;40
9.1;2 An overview of the chemistry of alkali-activated cement-based binders;42
9.1.1;2.1 Introduction: alkaline cements;42
9.1.2;2.2 Alkaline activation of high-calcium systems: (Na,K)2O-CaOAl2O3-
SiO2-H2O;44
9.1.3;2.3 Alkaline activation of low-calcium systems: (N,K)2O-Al2O3-
SiO2-H2O;50
9.1.4;2.4 Alkaline activation of hybrid cements;58
9.1.5;2.5 Future trends;65
9.1.6;References;66
9.2;3 Crucial insights on the mix design of alkali-activated cement-based binders;72
9.2.1;3.1 Introduction;72
9.2.2;3.2 Cementitious materials;73
9.2.3;3.3 Alkaline activators: choosing the best activator for each solid precursor;84
9.2.4;3.4 Conclusions and future trends;91
9.2.5;References;92
9.3;4 Reuse of urban and industrial waste glass as a novel activator for alkali-activated slag cement pastes: a case study;98
9.3.1;4.1 Introduction;98
9.3.2;4.2 Chemistry and structural characteristics of glasses;100
9.3.3;4.3 Waste glass solubility trials in highly alkaline media;104
9.3.4;4.4 Formation of sodium silicate solution from waste glasses dissolution: study by 29Si NMR;113
9.3.5;4.5 Use of waste glasses as an activator in the preparation of alkali-activated slag cement pastes;114
9.3.6;4.6 Conclusions;128
9.3.7;Acknowledgements;129
9.3.8;References;129
10;Part Two The properties of alkali-activated cement, mortar and concrete binders ;134
10.1;5 Setting, segregation and bleeding of alkali-activated cement, mortar and concrete binders;136
10.1.1;5.1 Introduction;136
10.1.2;5.2 Setting times of cementitious materials and alkali-activated binder systems ;138
10.1.3;5.3 Bleeding phenomena in concrete;145
10.1.4;5.4 Segregation and cohesion in concrete;147
10.1.5;5.5 Future trends;148
10.1.6;5.6 Sources of further information and advice;149
10.1.7;References;149
10.2;6 Rheology parameters of alkali-activated geopolymeric concrete binders ;156
10.2.1;Introduction: main forming techniques;156
10.2.2;6.2 Rheology of suspensions;164
10.2.3;6.3 Rheometry;174
10.2.4;6.4 Examples of rheological behaviors of geopolymers;181
10.2.5;6.5 Future trends;191
10.2.6;References;191
10.3;7 Mechanical strength and Young’s modulus of alkali-activated cement-based binders ;194
10.3.1;7.1 Introduction;194
10.3.2;7.2 Types of prime materials – solid precursors;194
10.3.3;7.3 Compressive and flexural strength of alkali-activated binders ;195
10.3.4;7.4 Tensile strength of alkali-activated binders;210
10.3.5;7.5 Young’s modulus of alkali-activated binders;211
10.3.6;7.6 Fiber-reinforced alkali-activated binders;221
10.3.7;7.7 Conclusions and future trends;226
10.3.8;7.8 Sources of further information and advice;227
10.3.9;References;227
10.4;8 Prediction of the compressive strength of alkali-activated geopolymeric concrete binders by neuro-fuzzy modeling: a case study;240
10.4.1;8.1 Introduction;240
10.4.2;8.2 Data collection to predict the compressive strength of geopolymer binders by neuro-fuzzy approach;241
10.4.3;8.3 Fuzzy logic: basic concepts and rules;242
10.4.4;8.4 Results and discussion of the use of neuro-fuzzy modeling to predict the compressive strength of geopolymer binders;247
10.4.5;8.5 Conclusions;253
10.4.6;References;254
10.5;9 Analysing the relation between pore structure and permeability of alkali-activated concrete binders;258
10.5.1;9.1 Introduction;258
10.5.2;9.2 Alkali-activated metakaolin (AAM) binders;259
10.5.3;9.3 Alkali-activated fly ash (AAFA) binders;269
10.5.4;9.4 Alkali-activated slag (AAS) binders;280
10.5.5;9.5 Conclusions and future trends;284
10.5.6;References;285
10.6;10 Assessing the shrinkage and creep of alkali-activated concrete binders;288
10.6.1;10.1 Introduction;288
10.6.2;10.2 Shrinkage and creep in concrete;288
10.6.3;10.3 Shrinkage in alkali-activated concrete;291
10.6.4;10.4 Creep in alkali-activated concrete;296
10.6.5;10.5 Factors affecting shrinkage and creep;303
10.6.6;10.6 Laboratory work and standard tests;305
10.6.7;10.7 Methods of predicting shrinkage and creep;307
10.6.8;10.8 Future trends;310
10.6.9;References;310
11;Part Three Durability of alkali-activated cement-based concrete binders;314
11.1;11 The frost resistance of alkali-activated cement-based binders ;316
11.1.1;11.1 Introduction;316
11.1.2;11.2 Frost in Portland cement concrete;316
11.1.3;11.3 Frost in alkali-activated binders – general trends and remarks;321
11.1.4;11.4 Detailed review of frost resistance of alkali-activated slag (AAS) systems ;324
11.1.5;11.5 Detailed review of frost resistance of alkali-activated alumino-silicate systems ;329
11.1.6;11.6 Detailed review of frost resistance of mixed systems;335
11.1.7;11.7 Future trends;338
11.1.8;11.8 Sources of further information;338
11.1.9;References;339
11.2;12 The resistance of alkali-activated cement-based binders to carbonation ;342
11.2.1;12.1 Introduction;342
11.2.2;12.2 Testing methods used for determining carbonation resistance;343
11.2.3;12.3 Factors controlling carbonation of cementitious materials;345
11.2.4;12.4 Carbonation of alkali-activated materials;345
11.2.5;12.5 Remarks about accelerated carbonation testing of alkali-activated materials;352
11.2.6;References;353
11.3;13 The corrosion behaviour of reinforced steel embedded in alkali-activated mortar;356
11.3.1;13.1 Introduction;356
11.3.2;13.2 Corrosion of reinforced alkali-activated concretes;358
11.3.3;13.3 Corrosion resistance in alkali-activated mortars;361
11.3.4;13.4 New palliative methods to prevent reinforced concrete corrosion: use of stainless steel reinforcements;373
11.3.5;13.5 New palliative methods to prevent reinforced concrete corrosion: use of corrosion inhibitors;384
11.3.6;13.6 Future trends;390
11.3.7;13.7 Sources of further information and advice;391
11.3.8;Acknowledgements;391
11.3.9;References;392
11.4;14 The resistance of alkali-activated cement-based binders to chemical attack ;396
11.4.1;14.1 Introduction;396
11.4.2;14.2 Resistance to sodium and magnesium sulphate attack;397
11.4.3;14.3 Resistance to acid attack;403
11.4.4;14.4 Decalcification resistance;411
11.4.5;14.5 Resistance to alkali attack;414
11.4.6;14.6 Conclusions;415
11.4.7;14.7 Sources of further information and advice;416
11.4.8;References;416
11.5;15 Resistance to alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) of alkali-activated cement-based binders ;420
11.5.1;15.1 Introduction;420
11.5.2;15.2 Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in Portland cement concrete;421
11.5.3;15.3 Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) in alkali-activated binders – general remarks;424
11.5.4;15.4 AAR in alkali-activated slag (AAS);424
11.5.5;15.5 AAR in alkali-activated fly ash and metakaolin;435
11.5.6;15.6 Future trends;441
11.5.7;15.7 Sources of further information;442
11.5.8;References;442
11.6;16 The fire resistance of alkali-activated cement-based concrete binders ;446
11.6.1;16.1 Introduction;446
11.6.2;16.2 Theoretical analysis of the fire performance of pure alkali-activated systems (Na2O/K2O)-SiO2-Al2O3 ;450
11.6.3;16.3 Theoretical analysis of the fire performance of calcium
containing alkali-activated systems
CaO-(Na2O/K2O)-SiO2-Al2O3;456
11.6.4;16.4 Theoretical analysis of the fire performance of iron
containing alkali-activated systems
FeO-(Na2O/K2O)-SiO2-Al2O3;462
11.6.5;16.5 Fire resistant alkali-activated composites;466
11.6.6;16.6 Fire resistant alkali-activated cements, concretes and binders;470
11.6.7;16.7 Passive fire protection for underground constructions;475
11.6.8;16.8 Future trends;480
11.6.9;16.9 Sources of further information;481
11.6.10;References;482
11.7;17 Methods to control efflorescence in alkali-activated cement-based materials;486
11.7.1;17.1 An introduction to efflorescence;486
11.7.2;17.2 Efflorescence formation in alkali-activated binders;490
11.7.3;17.3 Efflorescence formation control in alkali-activated binders;494
11.7.4;17.4 Conclusions;504
11.7.5;References;504
12;Part Four Applications of alkali-activated cement-based concrete binders ;508
12.1;18 Reuse of aluminosilicate industrial waste materials in the production of alkali-activated concrete binders;510
12.1.1;18.1 Introduction;510
12.1.2;18.2 Bottom ashes;512
12.1.3;18.3 Slags (other than blast furnace slags (BFS)) and other wastes from metallurgy;514
12.1.4;18.4 Mining wastes;516
12.1.5;18.5 Glass and ceramic wastes;519
12.1.6;18.6 Construction and demolition wastes (CDW);524
12.1.7;18.7 Wastes from agro-industry;526
12.1.8;18.8 Wastes from chemical and petrochemical industries;530
12.1.9;18.9 Future trends;534
12.1.10;18.10 Sources of further information and advice;534
12.1.11;Acknowledgement;535
12.1.12;References;535
12.2;19 Reuse of recycled aggregate in the production of alkali-activated concrete ;542
12.2.1;19.1 Introduction;542
12.2.2;19.2 A brief discussion on recycled aggregates;543
12.2.3;19.3 Properties of alkali-activated recycled aggregate concrete;546
12.2.4;19.4 Other alkali-activated recycled aggregate concrete;551
12.2.5;19.5 Future trends;555
12.2.6;19.6 Sources of further information and advice;555
12.2.7;References;555
12.3;20 Use of alkali-activated concrete binders for toxic waste immobilization;562
12.3.1;20.1 Introduction and EU environmental regulations;562
12.3.2;20.2 Definition of waste;563
12.3.3;20.3 Overview of inertization techniques;563
12.3.4;20.4 Cold inertization techniques: geopolymers for inertization of heavy metals;564
12.3.5;20.5 Cold inertization techniques: geopolymers for inertization of anions;567
12.3.6;20.6 Immobilization of complex solid waste;569
12.3.7;20.7 Immobilization of complex liquid waste;573
12.3.8;20.8 Conclusions;575
12.3.9;References;575
12.4;21 The development of alkali-activated mixtures for soil stabilisation ;578
12.4.1;21.1 Introduction;578
12.4.2;21.2 Basic mechanisms of chemical soil stabilisation;579
12.4.3;21.3 Chemical stabilisation techniques;585
12.4.4;21.4 Soil suitability for chemical treatment;589
12.4.5;21.5 Traditional binder materials;594
12.4.6;21.6 Alkali-activated waste products as environmentally sustainable alternatives;595
12.4.7;21.7 Financial costs of traditional versus alkali-activated waste binders ;596
12.4.8;21.8 Recent research into the engineering performance of alkali-activated binders for soil stabilisation;598
12.4.9;21.9 Recent research into the mineralogical and microstructural characteristics of alkali-activated binders for soil stabilisati;617
12.4.10;21.10 Conclusions and future trends;623
12.4.11;References;624
12.5;22 Alkali-activated cements for protective coating of OPC concrete;628
12.5.1;22.1 Introduction;628
12.5.2;22.2 Basic properties of alkali-activated metakaolin (AAM) coating;629
12.5.3;22.3 Durability/stability of AAM coating;635
12.5.4;22.4 On-site trials of AAM coatings;638
12.5.5;22.5 The potential of developing other alkali-activated materials for OPC concrete coating;645
12.5.6;22.6 Conclusions and future trends;646
12.5.7;References;647
12.6;23 Performance of alkali-activated mortars for the repair and strengthening of OPC concrete;650
12.6.1;23.1 Introduction;650
12.6.2;23.2 Concrete patch repair;651
12.6.3;23.3 Strengthening concrete structures using fibre sheets;656
12.6.4;23.4 Conclusions and future trends;661
12.6.5;References;662
12.7;24 The properties and durability of alkali-activated masonry units;666
12.7.1;24.1 Introduction;666
12.7.2;24.2 Alkali activation of industrial wastes to produce masonry units;667
12.7.3;24.3 Physical properties of alkali-activated masonry units;671
12.7.4;24.4 Mechanical properties of alkali-activated masonry units;674
12.7.5;24.5 Durability of alkali-activated masonry units;678
12.7.6;24.6 Summary and future trends;680
12.7.7;References;680
13;Part Five Life cycle assessment (LCA) and innovative applications of alkali-activated cements and concretes;684
13.1;25 Life cycle assessment (LCA) of alkali-activated cements and concretes;686
13.1.1;25.1 Introduction;686
13.1.2;25.2 Literature review;687
13.1.3;25.3 Development of a unified method to compare alkali-activated binders with cementitious materials;692
13.1.4;25.4 Discussion: implications for the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology;698
13.1.5;25.5 Future trends in alkali-activated mixtures: considerations on global warming potential (GWP);701
13.1.6;25.6 Conclusion;705
13.1.7;25.7 Sources of further information and advice;706
13.1.8;References;706
13.2;26 Alkali-activated concrete binders as inorganic thermal insulator materials;710
13.2.1;26.1 Introduction;710
13.2.2;26.2 The various ways to prepare foam-based alkali-activated binders ;714
13.2.3;26.3 Investigation of the foam network;722
13.2.4;26.4 Microstructures and porosity;729
13.2.5;26.5 Thermal properties;741
13.2.6;26.6 Possible use of a porous geopolymer binder;744
13.2.7;26.7 Summary;747
13.2.8;References;748
13.3;27 Alkali-activated cements for photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes;752
13.3.1;27.1 Introduction;752
13.3.2;27.2 Experimental technique;753
13.3.3;27.3 Microstructure and hydration mechanism of alkali-activated granulated blast furnace slag (AGBFS) cements ;758
13.3.4;27.4 Alkali-activated slag-based cementitious material (ASCM)
coupled with Fe2O3 for photocatalytic degradation of
Congo red (CR) dye;770
13.3.5;27.5 Alkali-activated steel slag-based (ASS) cement for photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye;780
13.3.6;27.6 Alkali-activated fly ash-based (AFA) cement for photocatalytic degradation of MB dye;784
13.3.7;27.7 Conclusions;791
13.3.8;27.8 Future trends;791
13.3.9;27.9 Sources of further information and advice;792
13.3.10;Acknowledgements;792
13.3.11;References;792
13.4;28 Innovative applications of inorganic polymers (geopolymers);800
13.4.1;28.1 Introduction;800
13.4.2;28.2 Techniques for functionalising inorganic polymers;801
13.4.3;28.3 Inorganic polymers with electronic properties;802
13.4.4;28.4 Photoactive composites with oxide nanoparticles;805
13.4.5;28.5 Inorganic polymers with biological functionality;806
13.4.6;28.6 Inorganic polymers as dye carrying media;810
13.4.7;28.7 Inorganic polymers as novel chromatography media;811
13.4.8;28.8 Inorganic polymers as ceramic precursors;813
13.4.9;28.9 Inorganic polymers with luminescent functionality;815
13.4.10;28.10 Inorganic polymers as novel catalysts;817
13.4.11;28.11 Inorganic polymers as hydrogen storage media;819
13.4.12;28.12 Inorganic polymers containing aligned nanopores;821
13.4.13;28.13 Inorganic polymers reinforced with organic fibres;821
13.4.14;28.14 Future trends;824
13.4.15;28.15 Sources of further information and advice;824
13.4.16;References;825
14;Index;830

Leseproben

1 Introduction to Handbook of Alkali-activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes
F. Pacheco-Torgal    University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal Abstract
This chapter starts with an overview on relevant AACB landmarks and also on AACB problems. Important bibliographic events as well as recent progress in this field are reviewed. Some shortcomings concerning durability performance, carbon footprint and efflorescence are reviewed. Comments on the possible contributions of AACB for sustainable development and eco-efficient construction are given. These include AACB with lower carbon footprint, contribution of AACB for building energy efficiency and the capability of AACB to reuse a high waste content. An outline of the book is also given. Keywords Alkali-activated materials Geopolymer Durability Carbon footprint LCA Eco-efficient construction 1.1 Brief overview on alkali-activated cement-based binders (AACB)
According to Provis and van Deventer (2009) Purdon was the first to demonstrate in 1940 the synthesis of construction materials by alkaline activation of high-calcium blast furnace slags. Shi et al. (2011) gives credit for this achievement to the work of German cement chemist and engineer Kuhl in 1930. More recently a 1908 patent of Kuhl was recognized as the first use of the alkali activation of aluminosilicate precursors in order to obtain an ordinary Portland cement (OPC) alternative material (Provis and van Deventer, 2013; Provis, 2014). In the next decades the field of alkali activation was almost non-existent, the only exception being the work of Glukhovsky (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Bibliographic listing of some important events in the history of AACB Feret 1939 Slags used for cement Purdon 1940 Alkali-slag combinations Glukhovsky 1959 Theoretical basis and development of alkaline cements Glukhovsky 1965 First called ‘alkaline cements’ Davidovits 1979 ‘Geopolimer’ term Malinowski 1979 Ancient aqueducts characterized Forss 1983 F-cement (slag-alkali-superplasticizer) Langton and Roy 1984 Ancient building materials characterized Davidovits and Sawyer 1985 Patent of ‘Pyrament’ cement Krivenko 1986 DSc Thesis, R2O - RO - SiO2 - H2O Malolepsy and Petri 1986 Activation of synthectic melilite slags Malek et al. 1986 Slag cement-low level radioactive wastes forms Davidovits 1987 Ancient and modern concretes compared Deja and Malolepsy 1989 Resistance to chlorides shown Kaushal et al. 1989 Adiabatic cured nuclear wastes forms from alkaline mixtures Roy and Langton 1989 Ancient concretes analogs Majundar et al. 1989 C12A7 - slag activation Talling and Brandstetr 1989 Alkali-activated slag Wu et al. 1990 Activation of slag cement Roy et al. 1991 Rapid setting alkali-activated cements Roy and Silsbee 1992 Alkali-activated cements: an overview Palomo and Glasser 1992 CBC with metakaolin Roy and Malek 1993 Slag cement Glukhovsky 1994 Ancient, modern and future concretes Krivenko 1994 Alkaline cements Wang and Scrivener 1995 Slag and alkali-activated microstructure Shi 1996 Strength, pore structure and permeability of alkali-activated slag Fernández-Jiménez and Puertas 1997 Kinetic studies of alkali-activated slag cements Katz 1998 Microstructure of alkali-activated fly ash Davidovits 1999 Chemistry of geopolymeric systems, technology Roy 1999 Opportunities and challenges of alkali-activated cements Palomo 1999 Alkali-activated fly ash – a cement for the future Gong and Yang 2000 Alkali-activated red mud-slag cement Puertas 2000 Alkali-activated fly ash/slag cement Bakharev 2001–2002 Alkali-activated slag concrete Palomo and Palacios 2003 Immobilization of hazardous wastes Grutzeck 2004 Zeolite formation Sun 2006 Sialite technology Duxson 2007 Geopolymer technology: the current state of the art Hajimohammadi et al. 2008 One-part geopolymer Provis and van Deventer 2009 Geopolymers: structure, processing, properties and industrial applications Source: Reprinted from Li et al. (2010). Copyright © 2010, with permission from Elsevier. Based on the previous table of Roy (1999). Notes: According to Provis (2010), this table forgot to list the ‘extremely valuable 2006 book of Shi et al. (2006)’. Moreover, Li et al. (2010) should have credited the ‘one-part geopolymer’ concept to Kolousek et al. (2007) because their paper was submitted to review process on March 19, 2007 and published online on 27 July, 2007, before the paper of Hajimohammadi et al. was submitted to review process on April 28, 2008 and accepted on September 23 and published only on October 29, 2008. Relevant changes took place in the 1970s with the findings of the French scientist and engineer Joseph Davidovits who coined the term ‘geopolymer’ in 1979 having patented several aluminosilicate formulations. The 1980s and 1990s saw other relevant investigations in the field of alkali activation. Still it is only in the last few years that the production of scientific AACB-related papers has ‘exploded’. Figure 1.1 shows that only in the twenty-first century has the accumulated number of papers exceeded 100. As a comparison, since 1993 almost 8,000 articles/reviews related to Portland cement were published in Scopus journals. The search also shows that the term ‘geopolymer’ has been much more popular than the term ‘alkali-activated materials’. Figure 1.1 Evolution of the accumulated number of articles/reviews published in Scopus/Elsevier journals by the keyword ‘alkali-activated’ (dotted line); and the keyword ‘geopolymer’ (solid line) searched in the sections title, abstract or keywords. The University of Melbourne was the affiliation with the highest number of ‘geopolymer’-related papers while the Instituto de Ciencias de la Construcción Eduardo Torroja was responsible for the major part of ‘alkali-activated’ papers. Another interesting fact was that two Elsevier BV journals published the majority of AACB related papers. Construction and Building Materials has the highest number of ‘geopolymer’ papers while Cement and Concrete Research was the lead journal for alkali-activated papers. At this stage it is important to mention that notes on the various terminologies used for categorizing AACB are deemed redundant in this chapter just because too much has already been written about it. Section 1.2 of the introductory chapter of the 2009 book by Provis and van Deventer (2009) provides a clear and up-to-date overview on that issue. One fact, however, deserves to be emphasized: the several names used by different authors (e.g., geopolymers, mineral polymers, inorganic polymers, inorganic polymer glasses, alkali-bonded ceramics, alkali ash material, soil cements, hydroceramics, zeocements, zeoceramics, among others) have made it more difficult for AACB to become an alternative to OPC. This reflects the concern to find the most scientific name but at the same time also reflects the lack of commercial good sense of the scientific community. Although the exponential increase of articles on...