Molyneux Control of Human Parasitic Diseases

1. Auflage 2006
ISBN: 978-0-08-045809-0
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 61, 690 Seiten, Web PDF

Reihe: Advances in Parasitology

Control of parasitic infections of humans has progressed rapidly over the last three decades. Such advances have resulted from focal disease control efforts based on historically effective interventions to new approaches to control following intensive research and pilot programs. Control of Human Parasitic Diseases focuses on the present state of control of the significant human parasitic infectious diseases. - Includes the impact of recent research findings on control strategy - Discusses the health policy implications of these findings and the importance of evaluation and monitoring - Highlights the lessons learned and the interactions between control programs and health systems - Foreword by Jeffrey D. Sachs

Autoren/Hrsg.

Molyneux, David

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Cover;1
2;Contributors to Volume 61;6
3;Foreword;10
4;Preface;12
5;Contents;14
6;Control of Human Parasitic Diseases: Context and Overview;20
6.1;Control of Parasitic Diseases;22
6.1.1;Concepts of Control, Elimination and Eradication;22
6.1.2;Examples of Parasite Elimination and Vector ‘‘Eradication’’;24
6.1.3;Components of Control;26
6.1.3.1;The Range of Interventions;26
6.1.3.2;Control of Animal Reservoir Hosts;26
6.1.3.3;Community Participation in Parasitic Disease Control;27
6.1.3.4;Steps in a Control Programme;30
6.1.4;Scaling up Control Programmes;36
6.1.5;Strengthening the Evidence Base;37
6.2;The Health Policy Environment;37
6.2.1;Health Financing and Sector-Wide Approaches;38
6.2.2;Public-Private Partnerships;40
6.2.3;The Global Burden of Parasitic Diseases;41
6.2.4;‘‘Neglected’’ Tropical Disease Initiatives and the Integration of Control;42
6.2.4.1;Integrated Control;42
6.2.4.2;Evidence for the Value of Integrated Control;45
6.2.4.3;The Cost-Effectiveness of Parasite Control;46
6.2.4.4;Scaling Up Integrated Control;47
6.2.4.5;Defining End Points for Integrated Control;48
6.3;Parasitic Diseases: New and Old Challenges;48
6.3.1;Emerging Diseases;48
6.3.2;Climate Change;49
6.3.3;Epidemics of Parasitic Diseases;50
6.4;Conclusions;56
6.5;References;57
6.6;Useful Websites:;64
7;Malaria Chemotherapy;66
7.1;The Pharmacology and Therapeutics of Antimalarials;67
7.1.1;The 4-Aminoquinolines;67
7.1.1.1;Summary;67
7.1.1.2;Mode of Action;68
7.1.1.3;Mechanisms of Resistance;68
7.1.1.4;Clinical Pharmacokinetics;69
7.1.1.5;Therapeutic Use;70
7.1.1.6;Adverse Effects and Adverse Interactions;70
7.1.2;Antifolate Drugs and Combinations;71
7.1.2.1;Summary;71
7.1.2.2;Mode of Action;71
7.1.2.3;Mechanisms of Resistance;72
7.1.2.4;Clinical Pharmacokinetics;73
7.1.2.5;Therapeutic Use;73
7.1.2.6;Adverse Effects and Drug Interactions;74
7.1.3;Quinine and Congeners;74
7.1.3.1;Summary;74
7.1.3.2;Mode of Action;75
7.1.3.3;Clinical Pharmacokinetics;75
7.1.3.4;Therapeutic Use;75
7.1.3.5;Adverse Effects and Drug Interactions;76
7.1.4;The Artemisinin Group;76
7.1.4.1;Summary;76
7.1.4.2;Mode of Action;77
7.1.4.3;Clinical Pharmacokinetics;77
7.1.4.4;Therapeutic Use;77
7.1.4.5;Adverse Effects;77
7.1.5;A Summary of Other Drugs Used for Malaria;78
7.1.5.1;Mefloquine;78
7.1.5.2;Atovaquone– Proguanil;79
7.1.5.3;Halofantrine;80
7.1.5.4;Antibiotics;80
7.1.5.5;Primaquine;80
7.2;Developing New Antimalarial Drugs;81
7.3;The Use of Antimalarial Drugs;82
7.3.1;Chemoprophylaxis;82
7.3.2;Intermittent Presumptive Treatment (for Pregnant Women and infants);83
7.3.3;Case Management of Uncomplicated Malaria;84
7.3.3.1;Background;84
7.3.3.2;Lumefantrine– artemether (Coartem);86
7.3.3.3;Chlorproguanil– Dapsone– Artesunate (CDA);86
7.3.3.4;Dihydroartemisinin– Piperaquine (DHA–PQ);86
7.3.3.5;Other Management;87
7.3.4;Case Management of Severe P. falciparum Malaria;87
7.3.5;Management of Malaria Outside the Formal Sector;90
7.4;Conclusions;90
7.5;References;92
7.6;Useful Websites:;95
8;Insecticide-Treated Nets;96
8.1;Introduction;97
8.2;Efficacy Studies;98
8.2.1;The Impact of ITNs on Malaria Morbidity;98
8.2.1.1;Children and Adults;98
8.2.1.2;Pregnant Women;99
8.2.1.3;ITNs in Combination with Other Malaria Control Interventions;102
8.2.1.4;Untreated Nets;104
8.2.2;The Impact of ITNs on Childhood Mortality;105
8.2.2.1;Protective Efficacy and Lives Saved;105
8.2.2.2;Mass Effect versus Individual Barrier Protection;105
8.2.3;The Impact of ITNs on Other Diseases and Nuisance Insects;108
8.2.4;Acquisition of Malarial Immunity;109
8.3;Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness Studies;111
8.3.1;Effectiveness of ITNs;111
8.3.1.1;ITNs Alone;111
8.3.1.2;ITNS as Part of National Malaria Control Programmes;115
8.3.2;Cost-Effectiveness of ITNs;115
8.4;Risk Assessment;117
8.5;Monitoring and Impact of Insecticide Resistance;118
8.6;Technological Advances;120
8.7;Evolution of ITN Policy;123
8.7.1;Equity versus Sustainability;123
8.7.2;Role of the Commercial Sector;124
8.7.3;Who Should Pay?;125
8.7.4;Role of ITNs Relative to IRS;126
8.8;Evolution of ITN Delivery Strategies;128
8.8.1;National Level;128
8.8.1.1;Projects;128
8.8.1.1.1;Subsidized Sales;128
8.8.1.1.2;Free Goods, Including Vouchers;130
8.8.1.1.3;Total Market Approach;131
8.8.1.1.4;Unsubsidized Commercial Sales;131
8.8.1.2;Moving from Projects to Programmes: Going to Full Scale;131
8.8.1.3;Current ITN Coverage;132
8.8.2;Regional Level;133
8.9;Conclusions and Needs;135
8.10;References;136
9;Control of Chagas Disease;148
9.1;Introduction;149
9.2;The Southern Cone Initiative;151
9.2.1;Technology and Strategy Development;151
9.2.2;Cost-Effectiveness;152
9.2.3;Organization;153
9.2.4;Regional Coordination;154
9.3;The Central American Initiative;155
9.3.1;History and Political Framework;156
9.3.2;Chagas Disease Vectors;158
9.3.3;Control of Rhodnius prolixus;162
9.3.4;Control of Triatoma dimidiata;164
9.3.5;Organization and Management;167
9.4;Challenges in Central America;170
9.4.1;Efficient Geographic Coverage of Triatoma dimidiata Control;170
9.4.2;Sustainable Vector Control via Integration of the Maintenance Phase;173
9.5;Chagas Disease Control Initiatives in Other Regions;175
9.5.1;Andean Region;175
9.5.2;Amazon Region;176
9.5.3;Mexico;176
9.6;Conclusion;177
9.7;Acknowledgements;178
9.8;References;178
10;Human African Trypanosomiasis: Epidemiology and Control;186
10.1;Introduction;187
10.2;Disease Burden and Distribution;189
10.3;The Vector—Tsetse Flies;191
10.4;Trypanosomiasis in Animals;193
10.4.1;Species Other than Trypanosoma brucei;193
10.4.2;Hosts and Reservoirs of Trypanosoma brucei;193
10.4.2.1;Wild Hosts;193
10.4.2.2;Domestic hosts;195
10.5;Diagnosis;197
10.5.1;Microscopy;197
10.5.2;CATT;198
10.5.3;Other Field Serological Tests for T. b. gambiense;199
10.5.4;ELISA;199
10.5.5;PCR;199
10.5.5.1;T. b. rhodesiense;200
10.5.5.2;T. b. gambiense;200
10.5.6;New Technology in Diagnostics;201
10.5.7;Field Diagnostics: Realistic and Appropriate Technologies;201
10.6;Treatment;202
10.7;Control;204
10.7.1;Historical Paradigms for Control: Biology and Necessity;204
10.7.1.1;Approaches Adopted in West Africa;206
10.7.1.2;Approaches Adopted in East Africa;207
10.7.2;Overlap of T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense: Policy Implications;208
10.7.3;Modern Paradigms for Control: Options for Policy;209
10.7.3.1;Choice 1: Human Treatments;209
10.7.3.2;Choice 2: Vector Control;210
10.7.3.3;Choice 3: Animal Treatments for Human Health Benefit;213
10.7.4;Responsibility for Control;216
10.7.4.1;Government;216
10.7.4.2;Community Control;217
10.7.4.3;Third Parties;218
10.8;Conclusions;219
10.9;Acknowledgements;221
10.10;References;221
11;Chemotherapy in the Treatment and Control of Leishmaniasis;242
11.1;Introduction;243
11.2;The Current Epidemiologic Situation and Requirements for New Control Strategies;244
11.2.1;Epidemiology;244
11.2.2;HIV–Leishmania co-infection;248
11.2.3;Canine Leishmaniasis;249
11.2.4;Control Components: Epidemiological Information, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention;250
11.3;Current Drugs used for the Treatment of Leishmaniasis;259
11.3.1;Treatments for VL;259
11.3.1.1;Pentavalent Antimonials;259
11.3.1.2;Amphotericin B;263
11.3.1.3;Miltefosine;264
11.3.1.4;Paromomycin;265
11.3.1.5;Other Treatments for VL;266
11.3.2;Treatments for CL;266
11.3.2.1;Pentavalent Antimonials;267
11.3.2.2;Amphotericin B;267
11.3.2.3;Miltefosine;268
11.3.2.4;Paromomycin;268
11.3.2.5;Other Treatments for CL;268
11.3.3;Treatment of Complicated Forms;269
11.3.3.1;Leishmania– HIV Co-infections and Secondary Prophylaxis;269
11.3.3.2;Recidivans Cutaneous Leishmaniasis;271
11.3.3.3;Diffuse Cutaneous Leishmaniasis;271
11.3.3.4;Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis;271
11.3.3.5;PKDL;272
11.3.3.6;Pregnancy;272
11.4;Controlof Leishmaniasis—Needs;273
11.4.1;Visceral Leishmaniasis;273
11.4.2;Cutaneous Leishmaniasis;273
11.4.3;Test of Cure;274
11.4.4;A Policy for Drug Resistance;275
11.4.5;Elimination Programme;278
11.5;Conclusions;279
11.6;Disclaimer;280
11.7;Acknowledgement;280
11.8;References;280
12;Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease) Eradication;294
12.1;Introduction;295
12.2;Life Cycle;296
12.3;Dracunculiasis;298
12.3.1;Clinical Impact;298
12.3.2;Treatment;301
12.4;Epidemiology;301
12.4.1;Where, Why, When, and Whom;301
12.4.2;Socio-Economic Impact;305
12.5;Eradication Campaign;305
12.5.1;Genesis and Initial Efforts to Gain Traction on Eradicating the Disease;305
12.5.2;Workshop on Opportunities to Control Dracunculiasis: 1982;307
12.5.3;The WHO Collaborating Center for Research, Training, and Eradication of Dracunculiasis at the CDC;308
12.5.4;The First African Regional Conference on Dracunculiasis Eradication and First World Health Assembly Resolution;308
12.5.5;The Carter Center;309
12.5.6;Other Resolutions;310
12.5.7;Strategy for Eradication;310
12.5.7.1;Interventions against Disease Transmission;311
12.5.8;Progress towards Eradication;320
12.5.8.1;Reductions in Cases of Dracunculiasis;320
12.5.8.2;Reductions in Endemic Villages;325
12.5.8.3;Reductions in Endemic Countries;325
12.5.8.4;Finishing the Job;325
12.6;References;326
13;Intervention for the Control of Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis in the Community;330
13.1;Population-Based Interventions to Control Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis;331
13.2;Intervention Package;333
13.2.1;Regular Anthelminthic Treatment;334
13.2.2;Health Education;337
13.2.3;Sanitation;338
13.3;Groups at Risk;340
13.3.1;Preschool Children;340
13.3.2;School-Age Children;340
13.3.3;Women of Childbearing Age;341
13.4;Frequency of Treatment;341
13.5;Targets;342
13.6;Delivering the Intervention;344
13.6.1;Helminth Control through Schools;344
13.6.2;Helminth Control through Community-Based Intervention;345
13.7;Impact on Morbidity;346
13.7.1;Preschool Children;346
13.7.2;School-Age Children;347
13.7.3;Pregnant Women;348
13.7.4;Adults;349
13.8;Cost of the Intervention;349
13.8.1;Regular Chemotherapy;350
13.8.2;Health Education;351
13.8.3;Sanitation;352
13.9;New Technology for Sustaining Deworming;353
13.10;Scaling up Deworming for School-age Children;355
13.11;Questions Needing Answers;356
13.12;References;358
14;Control of Onchocerciasis;368
14.1;Introduction;370
14.2;The Parasite Life Cycle and Human Disease;371
14.2.1;Onchocerca volvulus;371
14.2.1.1;Life Cycle and Transmission;371
14.2.2;The Vector;372
14.2.3;The Disease;372
14.2.3.1;Clinical Manifestations;372
14.3;Geographical Distribution and Epidemiological Patterns;373
14.3.1;Distribution in Africa;373
14.3.2;Distribution in the Americas;373
14.4;Diagnosis and Treatment;375
14.4.1;Diagnosis;375
14.4.1.1;Parasitological Diagnosis;375
14.4.1.2;Immunodiagnosis;376
14.4.1.3;DNA Probes;377
14.4.1.4;The DEC Patch Test;377
14.5;Treatment;377
14.5.1;Suramin and Diethylcarbamazine;377
14.5.2;Ivermectin;378
14.5.2.1;Impact of Ivermectin on Adult O. volvulus Parasites;379
14.5.3;Doxycycline and Wolbachia;380
14.5.4;Moxidectin;380
14.6;Vector Control Approaches to Onchocerciasis;381
14.6.1;The Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa;381
14.6.2;Vector Elimination/Eradication;384
14.7;Control Through Ivermectin Administration;385
14.7.1;The Scale of Ivermectin Treatment;385
14.7.2;APOC and OEPA;386
14.7.3;Targeting of Distribution;388
14.7.4;Coverage;388
14.7.5;Passive Distribution;389
14.7.6;Challenges of Community-Directed Treatment with Ivermectin;389
14.7.6.1;CDTI;389
14.7.6.2;Impact of Ivermectin on the Eye and Skin Lesions;390
14.7.6.3;Impact on Transmission;391
14.7.6.4;Duration of Treatment with Ivermectin;392
14.8;Ivermectin ‘‘Resistance’’;392
14.9;Surveillance;393
14.9.1;Entomological Surveillance;393
14.9.2;Epidemiological Surveillance;395
14.10;Cost of the Disease and Costs of the Programmes;396
14.10.1;Social and Economic Costs of the Disease;396
14.10.2;Costs of the Programmes;397
14.11;Future Challenges;398
14.11.1;Ivermectin Treatment of Onchocerciasis in Areas that are Co-Endemic for Loa loa;399
14.11.2;Ivermectin Distribution in Hypoendemic Areas;400
14.11.3;Sustainability;401
14.11.4;Detection of Ivermectin Resistance;401
14.11.5;Cessation of Ivermectin Distribution;402
14.11.6;Macrofilaricides and Other Drugs;403
14.12;Managerial Challenges;403
14.13;References;404
15;Lymphatic Filariasis: Treatment, Control and Elimination;414
15.1;Setting the Stage for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis;415
15.1.1;Recognizing the Barriers/Challenges to LF Elimination;415
15.1.1.1;Biological Barriers Imposed by the Parasite;415
15.1.1.2;Social and Political Barriers to LF Elimination;418
15.1.2;Reasons for Optimism about the Feasibility of Eliminating LF;419
15.1.2.1;Biological Features of LF that Favour its Elimination;419
15.1.2.2;Social (Historical) Considerations;420
15.1.2.3;Technical Considerations: The Availability of Effective Tools (for Treatment, for Diagnosis);421
15.1.2.4;A Promising Strategy to Eliminate LF;424
15.2;Turning Potential into Reality: The Global Programme to Eliminate LF;429
15.2.1;’Drivers’ of the Programme;429
15.2.1.1;Scientific Underpinning;429
15.2.1.2;Resources;431
15.2.1.3;Political Will and Partnership;432
15.2.1.4;Management;434
15.2.2;Achievements of the Global Programme: 1999–2005;435
15.2.2.1;Scope of Programme Implementation;435
15.2.2.2;Impact on LF Transmission and Disease;437
15.2.2.3;Ancillary Health Benefits;443
15.2.2.4;Integrated Management of Public Health Programmes;444
15.2.3;Raising Awareness of Global Health Issues and their Solutions;445
15.2.4;Principal Challenges Now Facing the Global Programme to Eliminate LF;446
15.3;Treating Individuals with LF;448
15.3.1;Treating LF Infection in Individuals;448
15.3.2;Treating the Disease in Individuals with LF;451
15.4;The Future;452
15.5;References;453
16;Control of Cystic Echinococcosis/Hydatidosis: 1863-2002;462
16.1;Introduction;464
16.1.1;Life Cycle Biology of Echinococcus. granulosus;465
16.1.2;Medical Importance;467
16.1.3;Epidemiology of E. granulosus Transmission;467
16.2;Hydatid Control Programmes Leading to Elimination or Near Elimination of E. granulosus;469
16.2.1;Iceland (1863–1960);469
16.2.2;New Zealand (1938–2002);473
16.2.3;Tasmania (1964–1996);475
16.2.4;Falkland Islands (1965–1997);478
16.2.5;Cyprus (1971–1985);479
16.3;Lessons Learned from Island Hydatid Control Programmes;481
16.3.1;Slow-Track versus Fast-Track;482
16.3.2;Options and Phases for Control of Cystic Hydatidosis;485
16.4;Continental Hydatid Control Programmes with Variable Success—South America;487
16.4.1;Epidemiology of Cystic Echinococcosis in South America;487
16.4.2;Hydatid Control Programmes in South America;489
16.4.2.1;Hydatid Control in Chile, Regions XI (1982–1997) and XII (1979–1997)—Evidence of Success;490
16.4.2.2;Hydatid Control in Argentina, Provinces of Neuquén (1970–1988) and Rio Negro (1980–1997)—Evidence of Success but Continued Transmission;493
16.4.2.3;Hydatid Control in Uruguay (1965–2002)—Initial Failure followed by Evidence of Success;496
16.5;Other Hydatid Control Programmes with No or Limited Success—Wales, Kenya, Sardinia;497
16.5.1;Mid-Wales, UK (1983–1989);498
16.5.2;Northwest Turkana, Kenya (1983–2000);500
16.5.3;Sardinia (1960–1997);502
16.6;Current Options and Tools for Hydatid Control;504
16.6.1;Epidemiological Modelling;504
16.6.2;Surveillance Tools;506
16.6.2.1;Ovine Hydatidosis;506
16.6.2.2;Canine Echinococcosis;508
16.6.2.3;Human Cystic Echinococcosis;510
16.6.3;Vaccination against Echinococcus granulosus;511
16.6.4;Options for Control of Echinococcus multilocularis;513
16.7;Concluding Remarks;514
16.8;Acknowledgements;514
16.9;References;515
17;Control of Taenia solium Cysticercosis/Taeniosis;528
17.1;Introduction;529
17.2;Disease Distribution and Burden;532
17.2.1;Occurrence;532
17.2.2;Disease Burden;534
17.3;Diagnosis;538
17.3.1;Taeniosis;538
17.3.1.1;Questioning and Self-Detection;538
17.3.1.2;Stool Microscopy;539
17.3.1.3;Peri-Anal Egg Detection;540
17.3.1.4;Copro-Antigen Detection ELISA;540
17.3.1.5;Copro-DNA Assays;541
17.3.1.6;Serology;542
17.3.2;Human Cysticercosis;543
17.3.2.1;Biopsy of Subcutaneous Nodules;543
17.3.2.2;Imaging;544
17.3.2.3;Immunodiagnosis;544
17.3.3;Porcine Cysticercosis;547
17.3.3.1;Lingual Examination;547
17.3.3.2;Pig Carcass Inspection;548
17.3.3.3;Immunodiagnosis;549
17.4;Treatment;550
17.4.1;Taeniosis;550
17.4.2;Cysticercosis;550
17.4.2.1;Human Cysticercosis;550
17.4.2.2;Porcine Cysticercosis;552
17.5;Vaccination;553
17.6;Surveillance and Reporting;556
17.7;Prevention and Control;557
17.8;Conclusions;565
17.9;Acknowledgements;566
17.10;References;566
18;Implementation of Human Schistosomiasis Control: Challenges and Prospects;586
18.1;Introduction;588
18.1.1;Life History and Transmission—Breaking the Life Cycle;588
18.1.2;Historical Perspective—Successes and Failures;590
18.2;Epidemiology;598
18.2.1;Epidemiology and Distribution, GIS and Disease Prediction;598
18.2.2;Water-Resource Developments;600
18.2.3;Infection, Re-infection and Genetic Factors;603
18.3;Control;605
18.3.1;Current Control Objectives and Strategies—Global Persuasion;605
18.3.2;Current Strategies to Reduce and Reverse Morbidity using Praziquantel;606
18.3.3;Other Drugs;609
18.3.4;Health Education;609
18.3.5;Vaccines;610
18.4;Schistosomiasis Control Initiative;611
18.4.1;Overview and Progress;611
18.4.2;Political Commitment;616
18.4.3;Procurement of Praziquantel and Albendazole;617
18.4.4;Future Strategies;618
18.5;Low Transmission Areas;618
18.5.1;Towards Elimination of the Disease;618
18.6;Integration and Sustainability;622
18.6.1;Integration with other Health Programmes;622
18.6.2;The First Steps Towards Integration of Activities;626
18.6.3;Achieving Sustainability;627
18.7;Acknowledgements;628
18.8;References;629
19;Index;642
20;Contents of Volumes in This Series;674
21;Colour Plate Section;682