Mead Food Safety Control in the Poultry Industry

1. Auflage 2005
ISBN: 978-1-84569-023-6
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 576 Seiten

Reihe: Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

The safety of poultry meat and eggs continues to be a major concern for consumers. As a result, there has been a wealth of research on identifying and controlling hazards at all stages in the supply chain. Food safety control in the poultry industry summarises this research and its implications for all those involved in supplying and marketing poultry products.The book begins by analysing the main hazards affecting poultry meat and eggs, both biological and chemical. It then discusses methods for controlling these hazards at different stages, from the farm through slaughter and carcass processing operations to consumer handling of poultry products. Further chapters review established and emerging techniques for decontaminating eggs or processed carcasses, from physical methods to the use of bacteriophage and bacteriocins.With its distinguished editor and international team of contributors, Food safety control in the poultry industry is a standard reference for both academics and food companies. - Reviews recent research on identifying and controlling hazards at all stages in the supply chain - Edited by a leading expert in this hot area with contributions from a worldwide team of experts - Identify how to meet and excede consumers high expectations in food safety

Autoren/Hrsg.

Mead, G. C.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover
;1
2;Handbook of Fibre Rope Technology;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Table of Contents;6
5;Preface;10
6;Acknowledgements;12
7;Author contact details;15
8;Disclaimer;16
9;Chapter 1. Introduction to fibre ropes;18
9.1;1.1 Ropes from ancient times to the mid-twentieth century;18
9.2;1.2 Advances since 1950;27
9.3;1.3 Rope issues;32
9.4;1.4 Diversity and choice;35
10;Chapter 2. Ropemaking materials;52
10.1;2.1 Range of materials;52
10.2;2.2 Natural fibres;52
10.3;2.3 General-purpose synthetic polymers;58
10.4;2.4 High-modulus, high-tenacity (HM-HT) fibres;64
10.5;2.5 Fibre mechanical properties;69
10.6;2.6 Other fibre properties;87
10.7;2.7 Other rope components;90
11;Chapter 3. Rope structures;92
11.1;3.1 Introduction to rope structures;92
11.2;3.2 Formation of rope structures;94
11.3;3.3 Laid rope;98
11.4;3.4 Plaited rope;101
11.5;3.5 Hollow braid rope;103
11.6;3.6 Double-braid (braid-on-braid) rope;107
11.7;3.7 Braided rope with jacket;110
11.8;3.8 Solid braid rope;111
11.9;3.9 Parallel strand rope;112
11.10;3.10 Kernmantle rope;112
11.11;3.11 Parallel yarn rope;115
11.12;3.12 Wire-rope type construction;116
12;Chapter 4. Properties of rope;118
12.1;4.1 Rope dimensions;118
12.2;4.2 Strength and weight;119
12.3;4.3 Elongation;125
12.4;4.4 Energy absorption;139
12.5;4.5 Fatigue;141
12.6;4.6 External abrasion resistance;153
12.7;4.7 Friction;153
12.8;4.8 Ultra-violet exposure;155
12.9;4.9 Temperature;155
12.10;4.10 Chemical and biological attack;156
12.11;4.11 Shrinkage;156
12.12;4.12 Spliceability;156
12.13;4.13 Knot retention;157
12.14;4.14 Hardness;157
13;Chapter 5. Rope mechanics;158
13.1;5.1 Introduction;158
13.2;5.2 Tension, torque, elongation and twist;165
13.3;5.3 Predicting rope properties;168
13.4;5.4 An alternative approach;177
13.5;5.5 Bending stiffness;177
13.6;5.6 Variability;179
13.7;5.7 Fatigue and durability;184
13.8;5.8 Hockling and snarling;194
13.9;5.9 System effects;196
14;Chapter 6. Rope production;202
14.1;6.1 Introduction;202
14.2;6.2 Production of rope yarns;208
14.3;6.3 Strand manufacture;211
14.4;6.4 Production of three- and four-strand rope;214
14.5;6.5 Production of braided rope;217
14.6;6.6 Production of low-twist rope;224
14.7;6.7 Production of parallel-yarn rope;228
14.8;6.8 Post-production treatments;229
14.9;6.9 Quality considerations;229
15;Chapter 7. Terminations;232
15.1;7.1 Fibre rope terminations;232
15.2;7.2 Splicing;232
15.3;7.3 Splice mechanics;240
15.4;7.4 Mechanical terminations;243
15.5;7.5 Socketed terminations;246
15.6;7.6 Thimbles and pins;247
15.7;7.7 Wire rope clips and swaged sleeves;250
15.8;7.8 Cleats, bitts and bollards;250
15.9;7.9 Stoppers;251
15.10;7.10 Knots, bends and hitches;251
16;Chapter 8. Use of rope;254
16.1;8.1 Introduction;254
16.2;8.2 Safe use guidelines;255
16.3;8.3 Rope uses;259
16.4;8.4 Guidelines for using rope;267
17;Chapter 9. Inspection and retirement;286
17.1;9.1 Introduction;286
17.2;9.2 Basis for inspection and retirement;286
17.3;9.3 Rope materials and constructions;287
17.4;9.4 Inspection and retirement programme;288
17.5;9.5 Used rope inspection and evaluation;289
17.6;9.6 Disposition following inspection;291
17.7;9.7 Types and effects of damage;300
18;Chapter 10. Testing;317
18.1;10.1 Introduction;317
18.2;10.2 Reasons for testing;319
18.3;10.3 Safety in testing;320
18.4;10.4 Terminations for strength testing;323
18.5;10.5 Strength and elongation test equipment;324
18.6;10.6 Strength instrumentation;326
18.7;10.7 Elongation instrumentation;327
18.8;10.8 Strength and elongation testing procedures;329
18.9;10.9 Size, linear density, lay and braid cycle lengths;332
18.10;10.10 Length;336
18.11;10.11 Cyclic loading tests;337
18.12;10.12 Flex fatigue testing;340
18.13;10.13 External abrasion resistance testing;342
18.14;10.14 Creep testing;343
18.15;10.15 Hardness testing;343
18.16;10.16 Testing for fibre properties;345
18.17;10.17 Synthetic fibre identification;346
19;Chapter 11. Consumption, markets and liability;347
19.1;11.1 Introduction;347
19.2;11.2 Consumption of fibre rope;347
19.3;11.3 Markets;349
19.4;11.4 Distribution;350
19.5;11.5 Liability;352
19.6;11.6 Conclusion;353
20;Chapter 12. Case studies;354
20.1;12.1 Diversity of ropes;354
20.2;12.2 Riser protection nets;354
20.3;12.3 Deepwater moorings;360
20.4;12.4 Supply vessel moorings;374
20.5;12.5 Facing wires for pusher tugs;376
20.6;12.6 Parallel yarn ropes: antenna stays and other uses;377
20.7;12.7 Kinetic energy recovery rope;379
20.8;12.8 Failure and success with Kevlar aramid ropes;380
20.9;12.9 Investigating failure;387
20.10;12.10 Climbing ropes;392
20.11;12.11 Sailing and yachting;396
20.12;12.12 Mussel ropes;403
21;Appendix I: Quantities and units;405
21.1;Rope dimensions;405
21.2;Stress and specific stress;407
21.3;Rope size and mechanical properties;408
22;Appendix II: Braid and plait terminology;409
23;Appendix III: UK trade data;411
24;Appendix IV: The theory of backtwist;413
25;Glossary;416
26;References;421
27;Index;425

Leseproben

1 Introduction to fibre ropes
1.1 Ropes from ancient times to the mid-twentieth century
1.1.1 Prehistory and history
In a sense, some animals were the first to use ropes. They used the long strands of vines and other plants to climb trees and swing from one branch to another. These ‘ropes’ are oriented assemblies of strong fibres in a softer matrix, not unlike modern pultruded composites. However, the real start of the story is the invention of manufactured ropes. Probably at different times in different parts of the world, but always before recorded history, men and women discovered that they could take fibres or coarser strands found in nature, twist them together to make long, strong yarns, and then twist the yarns together to make thicker ropes. Ropes are one of the oldest human artefacts. Gilbert (1954) notes that ‘a cave-painting [Fig. 1.1] in eastern Spain of Late Palaeolithic or Mesolithic date depicts a person using what appear to be ropes to climb down the face of a cliff, in order to collect wild honey’. Doubtless, ropes were made earlier in the history of mankind. However, these organic materials decay easily, unlike rock-cut drawings, stone tools, metalwork, pottery or the buildings of ancient civilisations. Natural fibre ropes only survive in water-logged or very dry conditions. Few artefacts remain. One of the earliest examples of artificial cordage is a piece of a fishing net made 10 000 years ago in Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) times and found by archaeologists in Finland (Gilbert, 1954). Fig. 1.1 Cave painting from eastern Spain, showing honey gatherer climbing ropes up a cliff face. From Oakley (1950) after Obermaier. One large rope, shown in Fig. 1.2, dates from 2500 years ago. In 1942, some British troops taking time off from the war, explored the Tura Caves on the banks of the Nile. They found blocks of stone similar to those used in the pyramids, and round one of these was a rope made of papyrus in about 500 BC. The hierarchical structure was similar to a modern three-strand rope: seven fibres were twisted in the cross-sections of the yarns, 40 yarns were twisted into strands, and 3 strands were twisted together to form the rope. By a lucky coincidence, G.C. Hawkins, grandson of the founder of Hawkins and Tipson, ropemakers of Sussex in the South of England (now, as Marlow Ropes, the largest UK rope manufacturer) was an officer with the South African forces in Egypt and was given a piece of the rope. Fig. 1.2 A papyrus rope made in 500 BC. From Tyson (1966). More information can be obtained from the pictorial and written record. A picture of an Egyptian reed boat from 2400 BC shows ropes holding up the sails. From circa 700 BC, the excavations of Nineveh in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) by Layard in the nineteenth century uncovered many pictures of colossi being pulled along by ropes. The drawing of a bas-relief, Fig. 1.3(a), from the Palace of Sennacherib shows a huge statue of a bull being pulled along by scores of men using ropes as thick as a human wrist. The stranded construction of the rope can be clearly seen, Fig. 1.3(b). Fig. 1.3 (a) A bull colossus being pulled along by ropes, circa 700 BC; bas-relief from the Palace at Sennacherib in Nineveh. From a drawing made on the spot by A.H. Layard, during his second expedition to Assyria. From Layard (1853). (b) Detail of the ropes. Reproduced by courtesy of the Director and Librarian, the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, England. As Gilbert (1954) wrote in Volume 1 of the OUP History of Technology ‘The manufacture of ropes was of the greatest importance in the ancient empires, for man was the chief source of motive power, and it was only by means of ropes that the gangs of slaves could apply their combined strengths to move the huge stones used in the construction of the pyramids and other monuments’. Herodotus records that, when Xerxes wanted to cross the Hellespont in 480 BC, he built a bridge of boats lashed to six cables, two of flax and four of papyrus. The Colosseum in Rome, circa AD 80, was covered for performances by awnings that took 300 men of the imperial fleet 4 days to erect. A modern analysis indicates that the hemp cables used to support the canvas had a diameter of 50 mm, a weight of 3 kg/m, a failure stress of 30–40 Mpa, and a modulus of 300–400 MPa (Croci et al., 1994). The earliest record of the process of making ropes is on a tomb in Thebes from the Egyptian Fifth Dynasty, nearly 5000 years ago, which has the inscription ‘twisting the ropes for boat-building’ (Gilbert, 1954). More detail is shown in Fig. 1.4, a painting of ropemakers from the tomb of Rekhmire in Thebes, circa 1450 BC, using methods that still persist today. The technology established by ancient civilisations hardly changed until the middle of the twentieth century. Interestingly, the later volumes of the History of Technology published in the 1950s make no mention of ropes. Fig. 1.4 Leather rope makers from a tomb in Thebes, circa 1450 BC. From Gilbert (1954). Through the centuries, ropes have been used for many purposes: in shipping, in farming and fishing, in bridges, in climbing, as barriers, as hoists, as clothes-lines, to tie people up and to hang them – the list is endless. 1.1.2 Rope materials
Every sort of flexible strand has been used to make ropes in some place at some time. The ropemakers in Thebes, shown in Fig. 1.4, were using strips of leather. In the Orkney Islands, ropes were made of heather. We have noted the stems of papyrus, which are a metre or so long. Silk ropes may be used in luxury furnishings. The choice among an endless list depends on the balance between (a) the performance requirements for a particular end-use, typically strength, durability, flexibility and softness or hardness, and (b) availability and economics. However, the natural plant fibres, composed of cellulose, dominated rope production in historic times. In temperate climates, the bast or soft vegetable fibre, hemp (Cannabis sativa), extracted from the stem of the plant, was most widely used, with some use of flax. Hemp is a widely applied word: the last edition of Matthews’ Textile Fibers, published in the 1950s, lists 49 different fibre types called hemp. One of these was manila hemp, more properly called abaca (Musa textilis). In the nineteenth century, manila hemp, sisal and other hard vegetable fibres, which were extracted from the leaves of tropical plants, were imported into Europe and USA and used in the industrial production of ropes. Cotton was used for cheaper, soft ropes, where strength and durability were less important. A braided cotton cord that was developed in the late nineteenth century became almost universally accepted to hang windows; examples exist today of rope still in service after over 50 years. The distribution of consumption among these fibres in 1951 is illustrated in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Consumption of traditional cordage fibres in USA in 1951. Hard fibres   sisal (agave) 121 manila hemp (abaca) 94 henequen (agave) 57 Soft fibres jute 45 cotton 13 flax and hemp 13 istle 1 TOTAL 344 From Himmelfarb (1957) 1.1.3 Rope construction
Vegetable fibres are all short (staple) fibres. Cotton is typically around 3 cm long; the others are much longer. In the bale, they are irregularly arranged and must be carded or combed to straighten out the fibres. Twist is then needed to hold the fibres together in a yarn. As the fibres wrap round each other, they press inwards and grip each other. With sufficient twist, there is a self-locking structure: the greater the tension, the tighter the fibres are gripped. By the various methods of hand-spinning, natural fibres were converted into yarns. This is essentially a continuous process, limited only by the length of several kilometres that can be wound onto a bobbin. The remaining stages of ropemaking – twisting a number of yarns into strands and then strands into ropes – were carried out discontinuously, most commonly in rope-walks, which were found in many ports and country towns. Illustrations of rope-making from Diderot’s Encyclopaedia of Science, Arts and Trades are shown in Fig. 1.5. It is interesting to note in Fig. 1.5(c) that Diderot appreciated the problems of the packing geometry of ropes. Often ropemaking was carried on outdoors (Fig. 1.6). A large dockyard ropewalk, such as that at Chatham, Fig. 1.7(a), might be over 300 metres long. At one end, there is the jack, Fig. 1.7(b), which has three hooks that can be rotated. At the...