E-Book, Englisch, Band 62, 648 Seiten
McPherson A Grammar of Tommo So
1. Auflage 2013
ISBN: 978-3-11-030107-6
Verlag: De Gruyter
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark
E-Book, Englisch, Band 62, 648 Seiten
Reihe: Mouton Grammar Library [MGL]ISSN
ISBN: 978-3-11-030107-6
Verlag: De Gruyter
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark
Tommo So is a Dogon language with approximately 60,000 speakers in Mali, West Africa. As only the second full grammatical description of a Dogon language, this volume is a critical resource for solving the mystery of Dogon's genetic affiliation with other languages in Africa. Tommo So is an SOV language with isolating nominal morphology and agglutinative verbal morphology; suffixes on the verb mark tense/aspect/negation as well as subject agreement. The phonology is sensitive to levels of verbal morphology in that variable vowel harmony applies less frequently as one moves to outer layers of the morphology. The tone system of Tommo So is of typological interest in both its phonological and syntactic instantiations. Phonologically, it is a two-tone system of H and L, but these specified tones contrast with a surface-underspecified tone. Grammatically, the lexical tone of a word is often overwritten by syntactically-induced overlays. For example, an inalienable noun's tone will be replaced with L if it is possessed by a non-pronominal possessor, and by either H or HL if the possessor is pronominal. The language has also innovated a series of locative quasi-verbs and focus particles sensitive to pragmatic factors like certainty.
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Weitere Infos & Material
1;Acknowledgments;5
2;Abbreviations;26
3;1 Introduction;27
3.1;1.1 Dogon languages;27
3.1.1;1.1.1 Geographic distribution of the Dogon languages;27
3.2;1.2 Tommo So;28
3.3;1.3 Environment;30
3.4;1.4 Culture;31
3.5;1.5 Language use and vitality;32
3.6;1.6 Tommo So sources;32
3.6.1;1.6.1 Previous work;32
3.6.2;1.6.2 Current fieldwork;33
4;2 Grammatical sketch;34
4.1;2.1 Phonology;34
4.1.1;2.1.1 Segmental inventory and phonotactics;34
4.1.2;2.1.2 Tonal inventory and tonotactics;34
4.1.3;2.1.3 Key phonological alternations;35
4.1.4;2.1.4 Key tonal changes;35
4.2;2.2 Verbal inflection;36
4.2.1;2.2.1 Aspect;37
4.2.2;2.2.2 Negation;37
4.2.3;2.2.3 Imperative and hortative;37
4.3;2.3 Verbal derivation;38
4.4;2.4 Noun phrase (NP);38
4.5;2.5 Case marking and PPs;39
4.6;2.6 Main clauses and constituent order;39
4.7;2.7 Relative clauses;40
4.8;2.8 Interclausal syntax;40
5;3 Segmental phonology;42
5.1;3.1 Consonants;42
5.1.1;3.1.1 Consonant phoneme inventory;42
5.1.2;3.1.2 Exceptional sounds;42
5.1.3;3.1.3 Gemination;43
5.1.4;3.1.4 Minimal pairs;44
5.1.4.1;3.1.4.1 /p/;44
5.1.4.2;3.1.4.2 /b/;45
5.1.4.3;3.1.4.3 /t/;45
5.1.4.4;3.1.4.4 /d/;46
5.1.4.5;3.1.4.5 /k/;46
5.1.4.6;3.1.4.6 /g/;46
5.1.4.7;3.1.4.7 /m/;47
5.1.4.8;3.1.4.8 /n/;48
5.1.4.9;3.1.4.9 /./;48
5.1.4.10;3.1.4.10 /./;48
5.1.4.11;3.1.4.11 /s/;49
5.1.4.12;3.1.4.12 /h/;49
5.1.4.13;3.1.4.13 /j/;49
5.1.4.14;3.1.4.14 /w/;50
5.1.4.15;3.1.4.15 /y/;50
5.1.4.16;3.1.4.16 /r/;51
5.1.4.17;3.1.4.17 /l/;51
5.2;3.2 Vowels;52
5.2.1;3.2.1 Vowel inventory;52
5.2.2;3.2.2 Nasal vowels;52
5.2.3;3.2.3 The status of [.];53
5.2.4;3.2.4 Vowel formants;54
5.2.5;3.2.5 Minimal pairs;55
5.2.5.1;3.2.5.1 /u/;55
5.2.5.2;3.2.5.2 /o/;55
5.2.5.3;3.2.5.3 /./
;56
5.2.5.4;3.2.5.4 /a/;56
5.2.5.5;3.2.5.5 /./;56
5.2.5.6;3.2.5.6 /e/;57
5.2.5.7;3.2.5.7 /i/;57
5.2.5.8;3.2.5.8 /uu/;57
5.2.5.9;3.2.5.9 /oo/;57
5.2.5.10;3.2.5.10 /../;58
5.2.5.11;3.2.5.11 /aa/;58
5.2.5.12;3.2.5.12 /../;58
5.2.5.13;3.2.5.13 /ee/;59
5.2.5.14;3.2.5.14 /ii/;59
5.2.5.15;3.2.5.15 /..n/;59
5.2.5.16;3.2.5.16 /aan/;59
5.2.5.17;3.2.5.17 /..n/;60
5.3;3.3 Syllable and stem structure;60
5.3.1;3.3.1 Syllable shape;60
5.3.2;3.3.2 Word minimality requirement;62
5.3.3;3.3.3 Stem lengths;62
5.3.4;3.3.4 “Crypto-compounds”;63
5.4;3.4 Phonotactics;65
5.4.1;3.4.1 Constraints on individual consonants;65
5.4.1.1;3.4.1.1 Word-initial restrictions;65
5.4.1.2;3.4.1.2 Stem-internal restrictions;66
5.4.1.3;3.4.1.3 Word-final restrictions;67
5.4.2;3.4.2 Constraints on vowel quality;68
5.4.3;3.4.3 Constraints on nasalized vowels;68
5.4.4;3.4.4 Constraints on vowel length;68
5.4.5;3.4.5 Consonant clusters;70
5.4.5.1;3.4.5.1 Initial CC;70
5.4.5.2;3.4.5.2 Medial geminated CC;70
5.4.5.3;3.4.5.3 Medial non-geminate CC;71
5.4.5.4;3.4.5.4 Medial CCC;73
5.4.5.5;3.4.5.5 Final CC;74
5.4.6;3.4.6 [u] ~ [Ø] alternations;74
5.5;3.5 Vowel harmony;77
5.5.1;3.5.1 Stems;78
5.5.1.1;3.5.1.1 Initial syllable;79
5.5.1.2;3.5.1.2 Medial syllables;80
5.5.1.3;3.5.1.3 Final syllables;83
5.5.1.4;3.5.1.4 Disharmonic stems;85
5.5.2;3.5.2 Harmony in verbal derivational suffixes;86
5.5.2.1;3.5.2.1 Introduction;86
5.5.2.2;3.5.2.2 Idealized suffix behavior;86
5.5.2.3;3.5.2.3 Actual suffix behavior;88
5.5.3;3.5.3 Harmony in verbal inflectional suffixes;90
5.5.4;3.5.4 Harmony in nominal derivational suffixes;91
5.5.5;3.5.5 Harmony in nominal inflectional suffixes;91
5.6;3.6 Metrical structure;92
5.6.1;3.6.1 Vowel reduction;92
5.6.2;3.6.2 Vowel syncope;93
5.6.3;3.6.3 /g/ spirantization;95
5.7;3.7 Other phonological rules;95
5.7.1;3.7.1 Nasalization;95
5.7.2;3.7.2 Nasal place assimilation;96
5.7.3;3.7.3 Pre-suffixal vowel raising, or, vowel hiatus resolution;97
5.7.4;3.7.4 Vowel hiatus;98
5.7.5;3.7.5 Pre-palatal vowel fronting;99
5.7.6;3.7.6 Derhoticization;99
5.8;3.8 Clitic phonology;100
6;4 Tone;101
6.1;4.1 Lexical tone;101
6.1.1;4.1.1 The tone bearing unit and contour tone distribution;101
6.1.2;4.1.2 Lexical tone in nouns, numerals, and adjectives;103
6.1.2.1;4.1.2.1 Monosyllabic nouns;104
6.1.2.2;4.1.2.2 Disyllabic nouns;105
6.1.2.3;4.1.2.3 Trisyllabic nouns;109
6.1.3;4.1.3 Lexical tone in verbs;112
6.1.3.1;4.1.3.1 /H/ class verbs;113
6.1.3.2;4.1.3.2 /LH/ class verbs;114
6.1.3.3;4.1.3.3 Sub-minimal /L/ verbs;115
6.2;4.2 Tonal underspecification;116
6.2.1;4.2.1 Phonetic realization of tone;116
6.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 Phonetic realization of H and L;116
6.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 Declination;119
6.2.1.3;4.2.1.3 Downdrift;119
6.2.2;4.2.2 Phonetic realization of Ø: interpolation;120
6.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 Single syllable;121
6.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 Multiple syllables;124
6.2.3;4.2.3 Underspecification and epenthetic vowels;125
6.3;4.3 Phonological tone rules;126
6.3.1;4.3.1 Tonal absorption;126
6.3.2;4.3.2 Tone shift;127
6.4;4.4 Verbal grammatical tone;129
6.5;4.5 Grammatical tone in the NP;132
6.5.1;4.5.1 Unpossessed NPs;132
6.5.1.1;4.5.1.1 Controllers: adjectives, demonstratives, and relative clauses;133
6.5.1.2;4.5.1.2 Non-controllers: numerals, definite, plural, ‘all’;134
6.5.2;4.5.2 Possessed NPs;134
6.5.2.1;4.5.2.1 Non-pronominal possessors;134
6.5.2.2;4.5.2.2 Pronominal possessors;135
6.5.3;4.5.3 Possessed NPs with other modifiers;135
6.5.3.1;4.5.3.1 Alienable possession;136
6.5.3.2;4.5.3.2 Inalienable possession;137
7;5 Nominal, pronominal, and adjectival morphology;139
7.1;5.1 Nominal morphology;139
7.1.1;5.1.1 Human suffixes;139
7.1.2;5.1.2 Irregular nouns (woman, man, child, girl, boy, person);141
7.1.3;5.1.3 Human suffixes on kinship terms;143
7.1.4;5.1.4 So-and-so;144
7.1.5;5.1.5 Nominal reduplication;144
7.1.6;5.1.6 Diminutive;145
7.1.7;5.1.7 Frozen initial à(N)- in nouns;146
7.2;5.2 Nominalization;147
7.2.1;5.2.1 Deverbal derivation;147
7.2.1.1;5.2.1.1 Agentive nominals;148
7.2.1.2;5.2.1.2 Gerundive nominals;148
7.2.1.3;5.2.1.3 -igo or -ige derivation;152
7.2.1.4;5.2.1.4 Infinitives;152
7.2.2;5.2.2 Deadjectival derivation;153
7.2.2.1;5.2.2.1 Reduplicative derivation;153
7.2.2.2;5.2.2.2 Characteristic derivation (-gú);154
7.3;5.3 Pronouns;155
7.3.1;5.3.1 Independent pronouns;155
7.3.2;5.3.2 Possessive pronouns;157
7.3.3;5.3.3 Suffixal pronouns;157
7.4;5.4 Definites and demonstratives;158
7.4.1;5.4.1 Definite determiner =g.;158
7.4.2;5.4.2 Deictic demonstratives;159
7.4.2.1;5.4.2.1 Demonstrative determiners;160
7.4.2.2;5.4.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns;161
7.4.3;5.4.3 Discourse definites;162
7.4.4;5.4.4 Presentatives (‘here’s…’);162
7.5;5.5 Adjectives;164
7.5.1;5.5.1 Suffixed adjectives;164
7.5.2;5.5.2 Unsuffixed adjectives;166
7.5.3;5.5.3 Distributive reduplication;167
7.6;5.6 Verbs as modifiers;168
7.7;5.7 Numerals;169
7.7.1;5.7.1 Cardinal numbers;169
7.7.1.1;5.7.1.1 ‘One’, ‘same (one)’;169
7.7.1.2;5.7.1.2 2 through 10;170
7.7.1.3;5.7.1.3 Decimal multiples (10, 20,…) and their combinations (22, 67,…);171
7.7.1.4;5.7.1.4 Large numerals (100, 1000,…) and their composites;172
7.7.1.5;5.7.1.5 Currency;173
7.7.1.6;5.7.1.6 Distributive numerals;174
7.7.1.7;5.7.1.7 Negative polarity adverb dògò;174
7.7.2;5.7.2 Ordinal adjectives;175
7.7.2.1;5.7.2.1 Ordinal formation (-yém suffix);175
7.7.2.2;5.7.2.2 ‘First’ and ‘last’;175
7.7.3;5.7.3 Fractions and portions;176
8;6 Nominal and adjectival compounds;177
8.1;6.1 Root compounds;177
8.1.1;6.1.1 Canonical compound [x`L x];177
8.1.1.1;6.1.1.1 Right-headed canonical compounds;177
8.1.1.2;6.1.1.2 Left-headed canonical compounds;178
8.1.1.3;6.1.1.3 Externally-headed canonical compounds;179
8.1.1.4;6.1.1.4 Complex canonical compounds;179
8.1.1.5;6.1.1.5 Compounds with íí ‘child’ and náá ‘mother’;180
8.1.1.6;6.1.1.6 Compounds with àná ‘man’ or yàá ‘woman’;182
8.1.1.7;6.1.1.7 Compounds with gùnn.´ ‘slave’ and náá, ‘fake’ and ‘authentic’;184
8.1.2;6.1.2 Pseudo-genitive compounds [x x`L];185
8.1.2.1;6.1.2.1 Overview;185
8.1.2.2;6.1.2.2 Tonal variation between pseudo-genitive and canonical compounds;186
8.1.2.3;6.1.2.3 Complex pseudo-genitive compounds;186
8.1.2.4;6.1.2.4 Unusual pseudo-genitives;187
8.2;6.2 Synthetic compounds;187
8.2.1;6.2.1 Agentive compounds;187
8.2.2;6.2.2 Compounds with final verbal noun; “[u] compounds”;189
8.2.3;6.2.3 Gerundive compounds;190
8.2.4;6.2.4 Purposive compounds;191
8.2.5;6.2.5 Other synthetic compounds;192
8.3;6.3 Adjectival compounds;193
9;7 Noun phrase structure;195
9.1;7.1 Organization of NP constituents;195
9.1.1;7.1.1 Linear order;195
9.1.2;7.1.2 Adjective-Numeral inversion;197
9.1.3;7.1.3 Detachability;199
9.1.4;7.1.4 Headless NPs;199
9.2;7.2 Noun plus adjective;201
9.2.1;7.2.1 Tone changes;201
9.2.2;7.2.2 Multiple adjectives;202
9.2.3;7.2.3 Ordinal numerals;202
9.2.4;7.2.4 ‘some’;202
9.2.5;7.2.5 Participles;204
9.3;7.3 Noun plus numeral;204
9.4;7.4 Noun plus determiner;206
9.5;7.5 Noun plus quantifier;207
9.5.1;7.5.1 Plural;207
9.5.2;7.5.2 ‘all’;208
9.5.3;7.5.3 ‘each’;208
9.6;7.6 Possession;209
9.6.1;7.6.1 Alienable possession;209
9.6.1.1;7.6.1.1 Non-pronominal NP possessor;209
9.6.1.2;7.6.1.2 Treatment of modifiers following the possessed noun;210
9.6.1.3;7.6.1.3 Non-pronominal possessor with genitive clitic =m.;211
9.6.1.4;7.6.1.4 Pronominal possession;212
9.6.1.5;7.6.1.5 Pronominal possession with modifiers;213
9.6.2;7.6.2 Inalienable possession;215
9.6.2.1;7.6.2.1 Non-pronominal possession;215
9.6.2.2;7.6.2.2 Non-pronominal possession with modifiers;216
9.6.2.3;7.6.2.3 Pronominal possession;216
9.6.2.4;7.6.2.4 Pronominal possession with modifiers;217
9.6.3;7.6.3 Recursive possession;218
10;8 Ideophones and onomatopoeia;220
10.1;8.1 Phonology of ideophones;220
10.1.1;8.1.1 Reduplication;220
10.1.2;8.1.2 Disharmonic stems;222
10.1.3;8.1.3 Unusual segments and phonotactics;223
10.1.4;8.1.4 Tone patterns;223
10.2;8.2 Adjectival intensifiers;224
10.2.1;8.2.1 Usage and morphology;224
10.2.2;8.2.2 List of adjectival intensifiers by phonological shape;227
10.3;8.3 Expressive adverbials;229
10.3.1;8.3.1 Adjective-like expressive adverbials;229
10.3.2;8.3.2 Adverb-like expressive adverbials;231
10.3.3;8.3.3 Expressive adverbials derived from nouns or verbs;233
10.4;8.4 Onomatopoeia;233
10.4.1;8.4.1 Animal calls;233
10.4.2;8.4.2 Body noises;234
10.4.3;8.4.3 Other noises;235
10.5;8.5 Sound symbolism;235
11;9 Coordination;237
11.1;9.1 Conjunction;237
11.1.1;9.1.1 NP conjunction;237
11.1.2;9.1.2 Ordering of the conjuncts;239
11.1.3;9.1.3 Conjunction of determiners;240
11.1.4;9.1.4 PP conjunction;241
11.1.5;9.1.5 Conjunction of adverbs;242
11.1.6;9.1.6 Conjunction of adjectival modifiers;242
11.1.7;9.1.7 Conjunction of adjectival predicates;243
11.1.8;9.1.8 Clause-level conjunction;243
11.2;9.2 Disjunction;244
11.2.1;9.2.1 NP disjunction;244
11.2.2;9.2.2 Disjunction of determiners;244
11.2.3;9.2.3 Disjunction of PPs;245
11.2.4;9.2.4 Disjunction of adjectival modifiers;245
11.2.5;9.2.5 Clause-level disjunction;246
12;10 Postpositions and adverbials;247
12.1;10.1 Postpositions;247
12.1.1;10.1.1 Instrumental and associative =le;247
12.1.1.1;10.1.1.1 Instrumental;247
12.1.1.2;10.1.1.2 Comitative;248
12.1.1.3;10.1.1.3 Other uses of the associative;249
12.1.1.4;10.1.1.4 =le as a question marker;251
12.1.2;10.1.2 Locative =baa;251
12.1.3;10.1.3 Oblique =n.;252
12.1.3.1;10.1.3.1 Simple uses of =n.;252
12.1.3.2;10.1.3.2 ‘On (the head of)’;255
12.1.3.3;10.1.3.3 ‘Next to, beside’;255
12.1.3.4;10.1.3.4 ‘In front of/forwards’ and ‘behind/backwards’;255
12.1.3.5;10.1.3.5 ‘Over/above’ and ‘under/below’;257
12.1.3.6;10.1.3.6 ‘Between’;257
12.1.3.7;10.1.3.7 ‘All the way to’;258
12.1.4;10.1.4 Possessive or benefactive =m.;259
12.1.4.1;10.1.4.1 =m. in locative constructions;260
12.1.4.2;10.1.4.2 =m. as a benefactive;260
12.1.4.3;10.1.4.3 Other uses of =m.;261
12.1.5;10.1.5 Purposive or causal diy.;261
12.2;10.2 Adverbs;262
12.2.1;10.2.1 Similarity;262
12.2.2;10.2.2 Extent;264
12.2.2.1;10.2.2.1 ‘A lot’, ‘very’ díy.`-go, sáy-ni, jóó-ni;264
12.2.2.2;10.2.2.2 ‘A little’ gààl..y-ni, m.`.´-ni;266
12.2.3;10.2.3 ‘Exactly’, ‘specifically’;267
12.2.4;10.2.4 Evaluation;268
12.2.4.1;10.2.4.1 ‘Well’ and ‘badly’;268
12.2.4.2;10.2.4.2 ‘Appropriate’;269
12.2.5;10.2.5 Epistemic modals;269
12.2.5.1;10.2.5.1 Certainly tájòrò, tílày;269
12.2.5.2;10.2.5.2 ‘Possibly’, ‘maybe’;270
12.2.6;10.2.6 Manner;271
12.2.7;10.2.7 Spatio-temporal adverbs;271
12.2.7.1;10.2.7.1 Temporal adverbs;271
12.2.7.2;10.2.7.2 ‘First’;272
12.2.7.3;10.2.7.3 Demonstrative adverbs;272
12.2.7.4;10.2.7.4 Directions;273
12.2.8;10.2.8 Other adverbials;274
12.2.8.1;10.2.8.1 ‘Straight’;274
12.2.8.2;10.2.8.2 ‘Together’, ‘apart’;275
12.2.8.3;10.2.8.3 ‘Always’, ‘never’;275
12.2.8.4;10.2.8.4 ‘All, entirely’, ‘not at all’;276
13;11 Verbal derivation;277
13.1;11.1 Factitive -nd.´;277
13.1.1;11.1.1 Phonological form;277
13.1.2;11.1.2 Inchoative verbs;278
13.1.3;11.1.3 Factitives added to intransitive verbs;280
13.2;11.2 Reversive –íl.´;282
13.2.1;11.2.1 Phonological form;282
13.2.1.1;11.2.1.1 Treatment of the stem-final vowel;283
13.2.1.2;11.2.1.2 Monosyllabic stems;284
13.2.1.3;11.2.1.3 Disyllabic stems;284
13.2.2;11.2.2 Opaque reversives;286
13.3;11.3 Transitive -ír.´ and mediopassive -íy.´;288
13.3.1;11.3.1 Phonological form;288
13.3.2;11.3.2 Transitive/mediopassive pairs;289
13.3.3;11.3.3 Suffixed mediopassive with bare stem transitive;290
13.3.4;11.3.4 Suffixed transitive with bare stem mediopassive;292
13.3.5;11.3.5 Mediopassive with no transitive counterpart;293
13.3.6;11.3.6 Transitive with no mediopassive counterpart;293
13.3.7;11.3.7 Inchoatives derived with the mediopassive;294
13.4;11.4 Causative -m.´;295
13.5;11.5 Ambi-valent verbs;296
13.6;11.6 Denominal verbs;297
14;12 Verbal inflection;299
14.1;12.1 Overview of tense-aspect-negation (TAN) for regular verbs;299
14.2;12.2 Imperfective;303
14.2.1;12.2.1 Present/future imperfective;303
14.2.1.1;12.2.1.1 Affirmative;303
14.2.1.2;12.2.1.2 Negative;306
14.2.2;12.2.2 Past imperfective;308
14.2.2.1;12.2.2.1 Affirmative;308
14.2.2.2;12.2.2.2 Negative;310
14.2.3;12.2.3 Focused imperfective;311
14.3;12.3 Perfective (non-focused);311
14.3.1;12.3.1 Affirmative;312
14.3.1.1;12.3.1.1 Present;313
14.3.1.2;12.3.1.2 Past;314
14.3.1.3;12.3.1.3 Future;316
14.3.1.4;12.3.1.4 Temporally unmarked;316
14.3.2;12.3.2 Negative;317
14.4;12.4 Defocalized perfective;319
14.4.1;12.4.1 Phonological form;320
14.4.2;12.4.2 Usage;322
14.5;12.5 Imperfective perfective;323
14.6;12.6 Experiential perfect;325
14.7;12.7 Progressive;327
14.7.1;12.7.1 Present;330
14.7.1.1;12.7.1.1 Affirmative;330
14.7.1.2;12.7.1.2 Negative;332
14.7.2;12.7.2 Past;332
14.7.2.1;12.7.2.1 Affirmative;332
14.7.2.2;12.7.2.2 Negative;333
14.7.3;12.7.3 Future;334
14.7.3.1;12.7.3.1 Affirmative;334
14.7.3.2;12.7.3.2 Negative;335
14.8;12.8 Subject agreement;335
14.8.1;12.8.1 Historical development of subject marking;335
14.8.1.1;12.8.2 3pl suffix marking;336
14.8.2;12.8.3 Phonetic interaction between aspect and subject marking;337
14.8.2.1;12.8.3.1 1sg -m;338
14.8.2.2;12.8.3.2 2sg -w;338
14.8.2.3;12.8.3.3 1pl and 2pl -y;338
14.9;12.9 Imperatives and hortatives;338
14.9.1;12.9.1 Imperative;338
14.9.1.1;12.9.1.1 Affirmative;338
14.9.1.2;12.9.1.2 Negative;340
14.9.2;12.9.2 Hortative;341
14.9.2.1;12.9.2.1 Affirmative;341
14.9.2.2;12.9.2.2 Negative;342
14.9.3;12.9.3 Optative;343
14.9.3.1;12.9.3.1 Affirmative;343
14.9.3.2;12.9.3.2 Negative;344
15;13 VP and predicate structure;345
15.1;13.1 Regular verbs and VP structure;345
15.1.1;13.1.1 Valency;345
15.1.1.1;13.1.1.1 Intransitive verbs;345
15.1.1.2;13.1.1.2 Transitive verbs;347
15.1.1.3;13.1.1.3 Ditransitive verbs;347
15.1.2;13.1.2 Verb phrase and clause structure;348
15.1.3;13.1.3 Fixed subject-verb combinations;349
15.1.4;13.1.4 Fixed object-verb combinations;350
15.1.5;13.1.5 Cognate nominals;352
15.1.5.1;13.1.5.1 Phonological resemblance between noun and verb;353
15.1.5.2;13.1.5.2 Predictability of noun class membership;359
15.1.5.3;13.1.5.3 Morphologically complex cognate nominals;359
15.1.5.4;13.1.5.4 Compound and modified cognate nominals;360
15.1.5.5;13.1.5.5 Grammatical status of the cognate nominal;362
15.1.6;13.1.6 Object marking;363
15.2;13.2 Copula, quasi-verbs and statives;365
15.2.1;13.2.1 Copula clitics;365
15.2.1.1;13.2.1.1 Affirmative copula;365
15.2.1.2;13.2.1.2 Negative copula;367
15.2.2;13.2.2 Existential and locative quasi-verbs and particles;368
15.2.2.1;13.2.2.1 w.;369
15.2.2.2;13.2.2.2 k.^;371
15.2.2.3;13.2.2.3 y.;372
15.2.2.4;13.2.2.4 tóò;373
15.2.3;13.2.3 Statives and other defective verbs;375
15.2.3.1;13.2.3.1 Stative verbs;375
15.2.3.2;13.2.3.2 Morphologically regular ‘become’ and ‘remain’;378
15.2.3.3;13.2.3.3 Irregular verbs;379
15.3;13.3 Existential particles yé= and kó=;380
15.4;13.4 Adjectival and adverbial predicates;384
15.4.1;13.4.1 Adjectival predicates;385
15.4.1.1;13.4.1.1 Regular predicates;385
15.4.1.2;13.4.1.2 Defocalized predicates;386
15.4.2;13.4.2 Adverbial predicates;387
15.5;13.5 Possessive predicates;387
15.5.1;13.5.1 Quasi-verb s. ‘have’;387
15.5.2;13.5.2 Possessive predicates with =m. and the copula;388
16;14 Comparatives;390
16.1;14.1 Asymmetrical comparatives;390
16.1.1;14.1.1 Predicate adjective with diy. ‘than’;390
16.1.2;14.1.2 Verbal predicate with diy. ‘than’;392
16.1.3;14.1.3 ‘Be better than’ íré;393
16.1.4;14.1.4 ‘Surpass’ gàlá;394
16.1.5;14.1.5 Superlatives;394
16.2;14.2 Symmetrical comparatives;396
16.2.1;14.2.1 Predicate adjective with =gonu ‘like’;396
16.2.2;14.2.2 ‘Be equal to’ k?´gu;396
16.2.3;14.2.3 ‘Attain’ d?`?´;397
16.3;14.3 ‘A fortiori’ sákò;398
17;15 Focalization and interrogation;399
17.1;15.1 Focus;399
17.1.1;15.1.1 Subject focus;400
17.1.2;15.1.2 Object focus;403
17.1.3;15.1.3 PP or adverbial focus;405
17.1.4;15.1.4 Verb and VP focus;406
17.2;15.2 Interrogatives;407
17.2.1;15.2.1 Polar (yes/no) interrogatives;407
17.2.2;15.2.2 a ‘who?’;410
17.2.3;15.2.3 .´j.´ ‘what?’, ‘why?’, ‘when?’;412
17.2.3.1;15.2.3.1 ‘What?’;412
17.2.3.2;15.2.3.2 ‘Why?’;414
17.2.3.3;15.2.3.3 ‘When?’;414
17.2.4;15.2.4 yàbáá, yàgú=n. ‘where?’;415
17.2.5;15.2.5 ya.(geni) ‘how?’;416
17.2.6;15.2.6 à.gé ‘how much’, ‘how many’;418
17.2.7;15.2.7 yàgú ‘which (one)?’;419
17.2.8;15.2.8 Embedded interrogatives;420
18;16 Relativization and clause nominalization;423
18.1;16.1 Overview of relative clauses;423
18.2;16.2 Tone marking on the head NP in a relative clause;424
18.3;16.3 Relative participle;426
18.3.1;16.3.1 Subject marking in relative clauses;426
18.3.2;16.3.2 TAN on the relative participle;429
18.3.2.1;16.3.2.1 Imperfective;429
18.3.2.2;16.3.2.2 Perfective;430
18.3.2.3;16.3.2.3 Experiential perfect;431
18.3.2.4;16.3.2.4 Progressive;432
18.3.3;16.3.3 Quasi-verbs as relative participle;432
18.3.4;16.3.4 Relative participles based on adjectival predicates;433
18.3.5;16.3.5 Relative participles with verb chaining;433
18.4;16.4 Headless relative clauses;434
18.4.1;16.4.1 ‘Person’ or ‘thing’;434
18.4.1.1;16.4.1.1 ‘Person’ or ‘one who…’;434
18.4.1.2;16.4.1.2 ‘Thing’ or ‘that which…’;435
18.4.2;16.4.2 ‘Time’;436
18.4.3;16.4.3 ‘Fact’, or nominalized clauses;436
18.4.4;16.4.4 Headless relative clauses as main or conjoined clauses;437
18.5;16.5 Subject relative clauses;439
18.5.1;16.5.1 Subject relatives: head placement;439
18.5.2;16.5.2 Conjoined NP subjects as head of a relative clause;441
18.5.3;16.5.3 Coordinated relatives with a shared subject head;442
18.5.4;16.5.4 The participle and subject agreement in subject relatives;442
18.6;16.6 Object relatives;443
18.6.1;16.6.1 Object relatives: head placement;443
18.6.2;16.6.2 Conjoined NP objects as head of a relative clause;445
18.7;16.7 Possessive relatives;445
18.7.1;16.7.1 Possessed-type relatives;445
18.7.1.1;16.7.1.1 Non-pronominal alienable possession;446
18.7.1.2;16.7.1.2 Pronominal alienable possession;447
18.7.1.3;16.7.1.3 Non-pronominal inalienable possession;448
18.7.1.4;16.7.1.4 Pronominal inalienable possession;449
18.7.2;16.7.2 Possessor-type relatives;450
18.7.2.1;16.7.2.1 Non-pronominal alienable possession;451
18.7.2.2;16.7.2.2 Pronominal alienable possession;452
18.7.2.3;16.7.2.3 Non-pronominal inalienable possession;452
18.7.2.4;16.7.2.4 Pronominal inalienable possession;452
18.8;16.8 PP relatives;453
18.9;16.9 Recursive relative clauses;455
18.10;16.10 Relative clauses with adverbial meanings;455
18.10.1;16.10.1 ‘When’;456
18.10.2;16.10.2 ‘Where’;456
19;17 Conditional constructions;458
19.1;17.1 Hypothetical conditional with =yo ‘if’;458
19.1.1;17.1.1 Conditional particle =yo;458
19.1.2;17.1.2 Form of the verb in hypothetical constructions;459
19.1.2.1;17.1.2.1 Antecedent verb: perfective;459
19.1.2.2;17.1.2.2 Antecedent verb: imperfective;460
19.1.3;17.1.3 Post-particle k.`mL ‘all’;461
19.1.4;17.1.4 ‘If’ on non-verbal predicates;462
19.2;17.2 ‘Even if’;462
19.3;17.3 ‘Whether or not’ conditionals;463
19.4;17.4 Counterfactual conditional;465
20;18 Clause chaining and subordination;467
20.1;18.1 Verb chaining;467
20.1.1;18.1.1 Morphological form of non-final verbs;467
20.1.1.1;18.1.1.1 Affirmative;468
20.1.1.2;18.1.1.2 Negative;469
20.1.2;18.1.2 Treatment of arguments;471
20.1.2.1;18.1.2.1 Subject marking on non-final verbs;471
20.1.2.2;18.1.2.2 Non-pronominal arguments;472
20.1.3;18.1.3 Common chain verbs;473
20.1.3.1;18.1.3.1 y.`-nd.´ ‘look at’;473
20.1.3.2;18.1.3.2 bì.jé ‘pull’;474
20.1.3.3;18.1.3.3 s. ‘have’;475
20.1.3.4;18.1.3.4 m.`.`nd.´ or m.`.`mb-íy.´ ‘assemble, do together’;475
20.1.3.5;18.1.3.5 dàá ‘kill’;476
20.1.4;18.1.4 Adverb-like non-final verbs;476
20.1.5;18.1.5 Clause subordination with non-final verbs;477
20.1.5.1;18.1.5.1 ‘Until’;477
20.1.5.2;18.1.5.2 ‘As soon as’;478
20.1.5.3;18.1.5.3 ‘After’;478
20.1.5.4;18.1.5.4 ní.-íy.´ ‘be afraid that’;479
20.1.5.5;18.1.5.5 g.`=s. ‘think that’;480
20.1.5.6;18.1.5.6 bàrá ‘help’;481
20.1.5.7;18.1.5.7 j.` ‘finish’;481
20.1.5.8;18.1.5.8 b.`l.´ ‘was able to’;482
20.1.5.9;18.1.6 -ee complements;482
20.1.5.10;18.1.6.1 m`b?´ ‘want’;483
20.1.5.11;18.1.6.2 ní.-íy.´ ‘be afraid to’;484
20.1.5.12;18.1.6.3 dàgá ‘be good’ (‘should’, ‘must’, ‘have to’);484
20.1.5.13;18.1.6.4 t.´l.´ ‘start’;485
20.2;18.2 Conditionals as clause chaining;486
20.3;18.3 Infinitival complements;487
20.3.1;18.3.1 nàá ‘forget’;487
20.3.2;18.3.2 m`b.´ ‘want, like’;488
20.3.3;18.3.3 ní.-íy.´ ‘be afraid to’;489
20.3.4;18.3.4 dàgá ‘be good’;490
20.3.5;18.3.5 pádá ‘cease’;490
20.3.6;18.3.6 yàbá ‘accept’;491
20.4;18.4 Complements with a gerundive compound;491
20.4.1;18.4.1 nàá ‘forget’;492
20.4.2;18.4.2 m`b.´ ‘want’;492
20.4.3;18.4.3 pádá ‘cease’;493
20.4.4;18.4.4 pádá-m.´ ‘prevent’;493
20.4.5;18.4.5 b.´.`-d.` ‘it is possible that’;495
20.4.6;18.4.6 bàrá ‘help’;495
20.5;18.5 Nominalized subordinate clauses;496
20.5.1;18.5.1 àmbà bòó ‘hope that’;496
20.5.2;18.5.2 .`l.`lú=w. ‘be happy that’;497
20.5.3;18.5.3 mììl.´ ‘doubt that’;498
20.5.4;18.5.4 kay-go=w. and màá-go=w. ‘be important that’;499
20.5.5;18.5.5 ì~í..` ‘be necessary that’;500
20.5.6;18.5.6 yàbá ‘consent’;500
20.5.7;18.5.7 ‘Because of’;501
20.5.8;18.5.8 ‘As soon as’;501
20.6;18.6 Postpositions;502
20.6.1;18.6.1 ‘Before’;502
20.6.2;18.6.2 ‘After’;503
20.6.3;18.6.3 ‘From… to…’;505
20.6.4;18.6.4 ‘As though’;505
20.7;18.7 =g. complementizer;506
20.7.1;18.7.1 nàá ‘forget’;506
20.7.2;18.7.2 y.` ‘see that’;507
20.7.3;18.7.3 .´g.´ ‘hear that’;507
20.7.4;18.7.4 íg-go=w. ‘know that’;508
20.7.5;18.7.5 .´s.´ ‘be clear that’;508
20.8;18.8 Complement with a null complementizer;510
20.8.1;18.8.1 íg-go=w. ‘know that’;510
20.8.2;18.8.2 mùlú-go=w. ‘it seems that’;511
20.8.3;18.8.3 ì..`-l.´ ‘maybe’;512
20.8.4;18.8.4 kó=diy. and pàské ‘because’;513
20.8.5;18.8.5 tílày ‘necessary that’;514
20.9;18.9 Participial complements;515
20.9.1;18.9.1 y.` ‘see’;515
20.9.2;18.9.2 .´g.´ ‘hear’;516
20.9.3;18.9.3 t.´mb.´ ‘find’;516
20.9.4;18.9.4 t.´l.´ ‘begin’;517
20.9.5;18.9.5 ‘in order to’;517
20.9.6;18.9.6 Adverbial clauses with -gú or -nú participles;518
20.10;18.10 Other complement constructions;521
20.10.1;18.10.1 gàá ‘be about to’, ‘almost’;521
20.10.2;18.10.2 bè-lí ‘did not want’;522
20.10.3;18.10.3 t.´mb.´ ‘find that’;522
20.10.4;18.10.4 à.ay ‘way’ (‘such that’ or ‘so that’ constructions);523
20.10.5;18.10.5 Durative verb iterations chained to a motion verb;523
20.10.6;18.10.6 Complements of ‘be able to’ with [u]- or [y]-final verb;524
21;19 Quotative constructions;526
21.1;19.1 g.` ‘say’;526
21.1.1;19.1.1 g.` ‘say’ with nominal complements;526
21.1.2;19.1.2 g.` ‘say’ with phrasal complements: direct vs. indirect quotations;527
21.1.3;19.1.3 Non-quotative uses of g.` ‘say’;529
21.2;19.2 Quotative particle =wa;530
21.2.1;19.2.1 Phrase-final =wa;530
21.2.2;19.2.2 Addressee-marking =wa;533
21.2.3;19.2.3 Embedded subjects marked with =wa;534
21.3;19.3 Jussive complement;536
21.3.1;19.3.1 Embedded imperatives;536
21.3.2;19.3.2 Embedded hortatives;538
22;20 Anaphora;540
22.1;20.1 Reflexives;540
22.1.1;20.1.1 Reflexives with kúú ‘head’;540
22.1.1.1;20.1.1.1 Direct object reflexives;540
22.1.1.2;20.1.1.2 Indirect object reflexives;543
22.1.1.3;20.1.1.3 Reflexive possessors;545
22.1.1.4;20.1.1.4 Emphatic reflexives;546
22.1.2;20.1.2 Adverbial reflexive strategies;547
22.2;20.2 Reciprocals;548
22.3;20.3 Logophoric pronouns;550
22.3.1;20.3.1 Logophors as subjects and objects;550
22.3.2;20.3.2 Logophors as possessors;551
22.3.3;20.3.3 Logophoric pronouns in relative clauses;553
23;21 Grammatical pragmatics;554
23.1;21.1 Topic;554
23.1.1;21.1.1 Bare topics;554
23.1.2;21.1.2 kay or gay;556
23.1.3;21.1.3 yàà;558
23.1.4;21.1.4 n..;559
23.2;21.2 ‘Also’ and ‘even’;561
23.2.1;21.2.1 =l. ‘also’;561
23.2.2;21.2.2 hálè ‘even’;563
23.3;21.3 Pre-sentential discourse markers;564
23.3.1;21.3.1 yállà ‘wonder’;564
23.3.2;21.3.2 káá, m.`, dògò ‘but’;566
23.3.3;21.3.3 sàbé ‘because’;567
23.3.4;21.3.4 n.´.´ (kay) and nìm..m ‘now’;568
23.3.5;21.3.5 French loans bon, est-ce que;571
23.4;21.4 Emphatics;572
23.4.1;21.4.1 koy;572
23.4.2;21.4.2 de;572
23.4.3;21.4.3 jáàtì ‘exactly’;573
23.4.4;21.4.4 wàlláy ‘by God!’;573
23.5;21.5 Back-channeling and uptake check;574
23.6;21.6 Greetings;575
23.6.1;21.6.1 Time of day greetings;575
23.6.2;21.6.2 Activity greetings;577
23.6.3;21.6.3 General greetings;578
23.6.4;21.6.4 Specific occasion greetings and expressions;579
23.7;21.7 Benedictions;580
24;22 Dialects;582
24.1;22.1 Phonological differences;582
24.1.1;22.1.1 /d ~ t ~ s /;582
24.1.2;22.1.2 /d ~ j /;583
24.1.3;22.1.3 /m ~ N /;583
24.1.4;22.1.4 Vowel correspondences;584
24.1.5;22.1.5 Tone correspondences;585
24.2;22.2 Morphological differences;585
24.2.1;22.2.1 /m/ vs. /N/;585
24.2.2;22.2.2 Negative imperative;586
24.3;22.3 Lexical differences;586
25;23 Texts;587
25.1;23.1 Why people named Kanda cannot be Hogon;587
25.2;23.2 The arrival of the Dogons, clan wars, the arrival of the Fulani and French;590
25.3;23.3 Origin of Tongo-Tongo;610
25.4;23.4 Dogon funerals in the old days;623
25.5;23.5 The story of the co-wives and their children;629
25.6;23.6 The story of the animals and the sun;636
26;References;642
27;Index;644
