Lamb Regreening the Bare Hills

Tropical Forest Restoration in the Asia-Pacific Region
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-90-481-9870-2
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 8, 550 Seiten

Reihe: World Forests

In Regreening the Bare Hills: Tropical Forest Restoration in the Asia-Pacific Region, David Lamb explores how reforestation might be carried out both to conserve biological diversity and to improve the livelihoods of the rural poor. While both issues have attracted considerable attention in recent years, this book takes a significant step, by integrating ecological and silvicultural knowledge within the context of the social and economic issues that can determine the success or failure of tropical forest landscape restoration. Describing new approaches to the reforestation of degraded lands in the Asia-Pacific tropics, the book reviews current approaches to reforestation throughout the region, paying particular attention to those which incorporate native species - including in multi-species plantations. It presents case studies from across the Asia-Pacific region and discusses how the silvicultural methods needed to manage these 'new' plantations will differ from conventional methods. It also explores how reforestation might be made more attractive to smallholders and how trade-offs between production and conservation are most easily made at a landscape scale. The book concludes with a discussion of how future forest restoration may be affected by some current ecological and socio-economic trends now underway. The book represents a valuable resource for reforestation managers and policy makers wishing to promote these new silvicultural approaches, as well as for conservationists, development experts and researchers with an interest in forest restoration. Combining a theoretical-research perspective with practical aspects of restoration, the book will be equally valuable to practitioners and academics, while the lessons drawn from these discussions will have relevance elsewhere throughout the tropics.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Lamb, David

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;12
3;Abbreviations;22
4;Chapter 1: Deforestation and Its Consequences in the Asia-Pacific Region;24
4.1;Introduction;24
4.2;Forests of the Asia-Pacific Region;25
4.2.1;Box 1.1Natural Forests with Limited Species Diversity;28
4.3;Deforestation Rates;30
4.3.1;Box 1.2Definitions of Deforestation;30
4.4;The New Landscapes;33
4.4.1;General Assessment of Degraded Lands;33
4.4.2;Undisturbed or Human-Dominated Lands;35
4.4.3;Mosaic lands;35
4.4.4;Frontier Forests;36
4.4.5;Grasslands;37
4.4.6;Box 1.3Definitions of Degradation;34
4.5;Estimates of the Area of ‘Degraded’ Land Potentially Available for Reforestation;39
4.6;Assessing the Extent of Biodiversity Losses;40
4.6.1;Predicting Future Extinctions;40
4.6.2;Monitoring Actual Species Losses Following Deforestation;42
4.7;Consequences of Deforestation and Biodiversity Loss;45
4.7.1;Deforestation and Greenhouse Gases;46
4.7.2;Deforestation and Watersheds;47
4.8;Is the Present Protected Area Network Able to Protect Regional Biodiversity?;50
4.8.1;Threats to Asian Protected Areas;51
4.8.1.1;Logging and Agricultural Clearing;51
4.8.1.2;Gathering and Hunting;52
4.8.1.3;Lack of Commitment By Governments;52
4.8.1.4;Size and Boundaries;53
4.8.2;Protected Areas in the Pacific;53
4.8.3;Box 1.4Making Protected Areas Contribute to Development Needs;54
4.8.4;Box 1.5A Pacific Conservation Reserve;55
4.9;Conclusions;56
4.10;References;57
5;Chapter 2: Forest and Land Degradation in the Asia-Pacific Region;63
5.1;Introduction;63
5.2;Natural Disturbances;64
5.3;Human Uses of Forests;66
5.3.1;Hunting and Gathering;66
5.3.2;Shifting Cultivation;67
5.3.3;Sedentary Agriculture;70
5.3.4;Box 2.1 Errors in rice planting dates lead to food shortages;72
5.3.5;Logging;73
5.4;Environmental Determinants of Deforestation;76
5.5;The Socio-Economic Context – a Short History of Deforestation in China and Japan;77
5.5.1;China;77
5.5.2;Japan;81
5.6;Deforestation and Degradation in the Asia-Pacific Region;83
5.6.1;The Rise in Abandoned Former Agricultural Lands;84
5.6.2;Populations and Deforestation;84
5.6.3;Causes of Deforestation;86
5.7;Seven Forest and Land Degradation Case Studies;86
5.8;Lessons Emerging from These Case Studies About the Causes of Forest and Land Degradation;100
5.9;Thresholds and Forest Transitions;103
5.9.1;Box 2.2 The forest transition at a local level in Northern Luzon, Philippines;105
5.10;Conclusions;106
5.11;References;107
6;Chapter 3: Reforestation, Conservation and Livelihoods;114
6.1;Introduction;114
6.2;Defining and Assessing Rural Poverty;116
6.3;Natural Forests and Livelihoods;117
6.4;Biodiversity Conservation or Livelihood Improvements?;121
6.5;Reforestation to Enhance Livelihoods and to Foster Biodiversity Conservation;124
6.5.1;Types of Reforestation;127
6.5.1.1;Plantations of Pulpwood and Commodity Grade Timbers;127
6.5.1.2;Plantations of High-Value Timbers Grown on Longer Rotations;129
6.5.1.3;Multi-Species Plantations of High-Value Species;130
6.5.1.4;Ecological Restoration or Environmental Plantings;131
6.5.1.5;Natural Regeneration;131
6.5.2;Some Qualifications;132
6.5.2.1;Environmental Conditions Will Constrain Silvicultural Choices;132
6.5.2.2;Not All Smallholders May Be Willing or Able to Engage in Reforestation;133
6.5.2.3;The Most Appropriate Silvicultural Systems Are Complex and Many Are Still Being Developed;134
6.5.2.4;These Options May Vary with Time;134
6.5.2.5;There May Be Other Silvicultural Options;134
6.5.2.6;There Must Be Trade-Offs Between Production and Biodiversity Conservation;135
6.5.2.7;Box 3.1 Forest Restoration in Northern Thailand by Villagers Lacking Formal Land Tenure;132
6.6;The Role of Land Tenure;136
6.7;Land Tenure and Reforestation;138
6.7.1;Box 3.2 Land Tenure and Reforestation by Smallholders in Vietnam;140
6.8;Community Forestry;141
6.8.1;Community Forestry Within Existing Natural Forests;141
6.8.2;Community Forestry on Cleared or Degraded Lands;144
6.8.3;Box 3.3 Community Forestry in the Philippines;145
6.8.4;Box 3.4 Community Reforestation on New Georgia Island, Solomon Islands;147
6.9;Community or Private Reforestation?;148
6.10;Conclusions;149
6.11;References;150
7;Chapter 4: Different Types of Reforestation;156
7.1;Introduction;156
7.2;A Conceptual Model of Degradation and Forest Restoration;157
7.2.1;Box 4.1Some Definitions;162
7.3;Choosing Between Ecological Restoration, Plantation Monocultures and Rehabilitation;159
7.3.1;Advantages and Disadvantages of Ecological Restoration;160
7.3.2;Advantages and Disadvantages of Plantation Monocultures;165
7.3.3;Advantages and Disadvantages of Rehabilitation Plantings;166
7.4;Degradation and Resilience;166
7.4.1;Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems;168
7.5;Building Resilience During Reforestation;170
7.5.1;Box 4.3The Hazards of Single Markets;172
7.5.2;Some Problems for Those Seeking to Design Resilient Forms of Reforestation;171
7.5.2.1;What Sort of Resilience – Specific or More General?;171
7.5.2.2;How Much Diversity is Needed in Plantations to Generate (Sufficient) Resilience?;172
7.5.2.3;How to Encourage the Development of Resilient Forms of Reforestation?;173
7.5.2.4;Might It Be Easier to Enhance Resilience at a Landscape Scale Rather Than at a Particular Site?;173
7.6;Conclusion;174
7.6.1;Box 4.2Attributes of Restored Ecosystems (Society for Ecological Restoration International 2004);164
7.7;References;174
8;Chapter 5: Natural Regeneration and Secondary Forests;177
8.1;Introduction;177
8.2;Defining Secondary Forests;178
8.3;Natural Forest Regeneration at Disturbed Sites;180
8.3.1;Sources of Plant Colonists;181
8.3.1.1;Seed Stored in Topsoil;181
8.3.1.2;Seedlings Remaining on Forest Floor;181
8.3.1.3;Stumps, Rhizomes and Roots;182
8.3.1.4;Seed Dispersed into the Site from Outside;183
8.3.2;The Landscape Context and Its Influence on Seed Dispersal;184
8.3.3;The Fate of New Seedlings Colonizing After a Disturbance;186
8.3.4;Types of Secondary Forest Successions;188
8.3.5;Box 5.1Secondary Forests Arising After Successive Wildfires in Borneo;193
8.4;Ecosystem Services Provided by Secondary Forests;194
8.4.1;Secondary Forests as Habitats for Old-Growth Forest Species;194
8.4.2;Watershed Protection and Hydrological Flows;196
8.4.3;Carbon Sequestration;197
8.5;Using Natural Succession to Overcome Degradation;198
8.5.1;Protecting the Site from Further Disturbances;198
8.5.2;Removing Weeds and Pests;204
8.5.3;Soil Constraints;205
8.5.4;Source of Colonists Nearby;205
8.5.5;Box 5.2Natural Regeneration When Fires are Excluded;201
8.6;Accelerating Successional Development;205
8.7;Managing Established Secondary Forests;208
8.7.1;Increasing Timber Productivity in Existing Forests;208
8.7.2;Modifying the Composition of Secondary Forests;209
8.7.3;Box 5.3Requirements for Enrichment Planting in Timber Production Forests;210
8.7.4;Box 5.4Enrichment Planting in Secondary Dipterocarp Forest, Sabah;214
8.7.5;Box 5.5Maintaining Secondary Forests in the Face of Land Clearing Threats;215
8.8;Using Secondary Forests to Create Agroforests;216
8.8.1;Types of Agroforests;216
8.8.2;Conditions Favouring the Development of Agroforests;218
8.8.3;The Uncertain Future of Agroforests;220
8.9;Conclusions;222
8.10;References;223
9;Chapter 6: Monocultural Plantings;230
9.1;Introduction;230
9.2;Reasons for Establishing Plantations;231
9.2.1;Private Industrial Growers;231
9.2.2;State Forestry Agencies;232
9.2.3;Smallholders and Community Forestry Groups;232
9.2.4;Special Purpose Groups;233
9.3;Implementing Reforestation on Degraded Lands;233
9.4;The Particular Case of Mine Site Rehabilitation;240
9.5;The Standard Plantation Model;243
9.5.1;Box 6.1Why plantations sometimes fail?;247
9.6;Limitations of This Standard Model;247
9.7;The Hazards of Monocultures;249
9.8;Species Choices;252
9.8.1;Fast Growing or Slow Growing Species?;253
9.9;Sources of Information on Species Choices;255
9.9.1;Biogeographic Distribution and Knowledge of Silvicultural Attributes;255
9.9.2;Traditional Knowledge and Farmer Preferences;256
9.9.3;Box 6.2The best species to plant;257
9.9.4;Evidence from experimental field trials;257
9.9.5;Box 6.3 Hazards of long-term silviculture experimentation;261
9.9.6;Evidence from Markets;259
9.10;Problems Needing Resolution Before Using a Wider Range of Species in Reforestation Programs;261
9.10.1;How to Get Seeds and High Quality Seedlings?;261
9.10.2;Do Some Species Need Early Shade?;263
9.10.3;What Are the Preferred Sites of Different Species?;264
9.10.4;What Are Appropriate Pruning and Thinning Schedules?;264
9.10.5;What Are the Growth Rates?;267
9.10.6;What Are Appropriate Rotation Lengths?;269
9.10.7;How Should Natural Regeneration Beneath the Plantation Canopy be Managed?;270
9.11;Monoculture Plantations, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services;272
9.11.1;Biodiversity;272
9.11.2;Watershed Protection;273
9.11.3;Water Flows;274
9.11.4;Box 6.4The reversibility of hydrological changes;276
9.11.5;Carbon Sequestration and Storage;277
9.12;Conclusions;280
9.13;References;281
10;Chapter 7: Mixed-Species Plantings;287
10.1;Introduction;287
10.2;Some Potential Advantages of Mixed Species Plantations;288
10.2.1;Enhanced Production in Multi-Species Plantations;289
10.2.2;Improved Nutrition;295
10.2.3;Reduced Damage from Pests and Diseases;297
10.2.4;Financial Benefits;298
10.2.5;Ameliorating Site Conditions at Cleared or Degraded Sites;299
10.3;Species Functional Types;300
10.4;Designs for Mixed-Species Plantations;302
10.4.1;Cash Crop Grown Beneath a Timber Plantation;302
10.4.2;Uneven Aged Plantations Involving Only Trees;305
10.4.3;Even-Aged Plantation Using Species Grown Togetheron Short and Long Rotations;311
10.4.4;Even-Aged Plantation with All Species Grown Togetherin a Single Long Rotation;315
10.5;Identifying Ecologically Complementary Species;323
10.6;Some Management Issues;327
10.6.1;The Number and Type of Species to Use;327
10.6.2;Thinning;328
10.6.3;Rotation Length;330
10.7;Mixtures at a Landscape Scale – a Mosaic of Monocultures;331
10.8;Providing Ecosystem Services;332
10.8.1;Biodiversity;333
10.8.2;Soil Protection and Hydrological Flows;335
10.8.3;Carbon Sequestration;335
10.9;Conclusions;336
10.10;References;337
11;Chapter 8: Ecological Restoration;342
11.1;Introduction;342
11.2;Re-Assembling Forest Ecosystems;343
11.2.1;Filters;344
11.2.2;Interactions Between Species;345
11.2.3;Putting Theory into Practice;347
11.2.4;Box 8.1An Apparently Successful Forest Restoration Program;346
11.3;Examples of Ecological Restoration of Tropical Forests;349
11.3.1;Case Study 1: Hong Kong;349
11.3.2;Case Study 2: Amazonia, Brazil;350
11.3.3;Case Study 3: North Queensland, Australia;351
11.3.4;Case Study 4: Chiang Mai, Thailand;352
11.3.5;Case Study 5: Khao Phaeng Ma, Thailand;353
11.4;Some Tentative Principles Governing the Ways in Which Forest Ecosystems Might Be Restored;355
11.5;In Practice;357
11.5.1;Nurse Tree Method;357
11.5.2;Framework Species Method;358
11.5.3;Maximum Diversity Method;359
11.6;Direct Seeding;361
11.6.1;Limitations on the Use of Direct Seeding;363
11.7;The Social Context;367
11.8;Monitoring and Adaptive Management;368
11.8.1;Box 8.2 Attributes of Restored Ecosystems (After SER 2004);369
11.9;Conclusion;372
11.10;References;372
12;Chapter 9: Plantation Finances;376
12.1;Introduction;376
12.2;Markets for Forest Products – Examples from Vietnam;377
12.2.1;Fuelwood in Vietnam;378
12.2.2;Sawn Timber and Poles in Vietnam;379
12.2.3;Pulpwood in Vietnam;382
12.3;Forest Product Markets Elsewhere in the Asia–Pacific Region;382
12.3.1;Box 9.1The Lao PDR Teak boom;384
12.4;Market Chains;386
12.5;Financial Models of Different Plantation Designs;388
12.5.1;A Vietnam Case Study;389
12.6;The Financial Profitability of Tree-Growing Elsewhere in the Asia-Pacific Region;392
12.7;Reforestation Businesses;393
12.8;Payments for Ecosystem Services;394
12.8.1;Role of PES in Enhancing Conservation Outcomes;395
12.8.2;Box 9.2Establishing the Price of Ecological Services Through Conservation Auctions;398
12.8.3;The Role of PES in Improving Livelihoods and Reducing Poverty;399
12.8.4;Making PES Schemes Work;400
12.9;The Carbon Market;401
12.10;Increasing the Incomes Received by Tree-Growers;403
12.11;Conclusions;406
12.12;References;407
13;Chapter 10: Reforestation and Farmers;410
13.1;Introduction;410
13.2;Farmers and the Farming Environment;411
13.2.1;Typologies of Farmers Based on Behaviour;411
13.2.2;A Typology of Farmers Based on Resource Limitations;413
13.2.3;A Typology of Farmers Based in Their Interest in Reforestation;414
13.3;Making Reforestation Attractive to Farmers;417
13.4;The Transition Away from Traditional Forms of Silviculture;420
13.4.1;Box 10.1The Evolution of Silvicultural Knowledge in South Western China;422
13.5;Reforestation Following Government Assistance;423
13.5.1;Smallholder Reforestation in Vietnam;424
13.5.2;Smallholder Reforestation in the Philippines;427
13.5.3;Smallholder Reforestation in Indonesia;430
13.5.4;Papua New Guinea;432
13.5.5;Solomon Islands;434
13.5.6;Australia;436
13.5.7;Lao PDR;437
13.6;Reforestation with Assistance from Private Timber Companies;438
13.7;Reforestation with Assistance from Non Government Organisations;440
13.8;Are Partnerships Enough? The Role of Incentives;440
13.9;Building Socially Resilient Forms of Reforestation;442
13.9.1;Learning Networks for Reforestation;444
13.9.2;Monitoring and Evaluating Progress;447
13.9.3;Box 10.2Transforming Social-Ecological Systems;443
13.10;Judging Success from a Farmer Perspective;448
13.11;Conclusions;449
13.12;References;450
14;Chapter 11: Reforestation at a Landscape Scale;455
14.1;Introduction;455
14.2;The Nature of Landscape Mosaics;456
14.2.1;Box 11.1Definition of Landscapes;457
14.3;Ecological Processes in Evolving Landscapes;458
14.3.1;Biodiversity;459
14.3.2;Hydrology, Sedimentation and Watershed Protectionin Landscape Mosaics;460
14.4;Building Resilience at the Landscape Scale;461
14.5;How Much Reforestation?;463
14.5.1;How Much Reforestation is Needed to Improve Biodiversity Conservation?;463
14.5.2;How Does Increasing Reforestation Area Affect Hydrologyand Watershed Protection?;464
14.5.3;How Much Reforestation is Needed to GenerateSocio-Economic Benefits?;465
14.6;Where to Undertake Reforestation;466
14.6.1;Where to Reforest to Improve Biodiversity Conservation?;466
14.6.2;Where to Reforest to Improving Ecosystem Functioning?;469
14.6.3;Where to Reforest to Improve Livelihoods?;470
14.7;What Types of Reforestation at Particular Locations?;471
14.8;Planning Forest Landscape Restoration;472
14.8.1;Top-Down or Bottom-Up Planning?;473
14.8.2;Steps in Planning Reforestation at a Landscape Scale;475
14.8.2.1;Stage 1: Develop a Landscape View of the Problem;475
14.8.2.2;Stage 2: Group Engagement;478
14.8.2.3;Stage 3: Identify Possibilities;479
14.8.2.4;Stage 4: Decision-Making and Priority Setting;480
14.8.2.5;Stage 5: Monitoring and Adaptive Management;482
14.8.3;Box 11.2Forest Landscape Restoration as Part of a Larger Land Use Planning Program in Fiji;476
14.8.4;Box 11.3Evaluating Alternative Reforestation Scenarios;481
14.9;Approaches and Decision-Support Tools for Forest Landscape Restoration;484
14.9.1;Visualisation;484
14.9.2;Scenario Analysis;487
14.9.3;Simple Models;488
14.9.4;Role Playing Games;490
14.9.5;Cost Effectiveness;491
14.9.6;Market-Based Instruments;492
14.10;Conclusion;494
14.11;References;495
15;Chapter 12: Developing Institutional Support for Large-Scale Reforestation;499
15.1;Introduction;499
15.2;The Future Context?;500
15.2.1;Population Growth and the Need for Greater Food Production;500
15.2.2;Urbanisation;500
15.2.3;A Rising Middle Class and Rising Environmental Concerns;502
15.2.4;New Markets for Forest Products and Ecosystem Services;502
15.2.5;Climate Change;503
15.3;Undertaking Reforestation in the Future;505
15.3.1;The Role of Markets;506
15.3.2;The Role of Governments;507
15.3.3;Box 12.1Losing Knowledge;510
15.4;The Role of Plantation Timber Companies;511
15.4.1;The Role of Non-Government Organisations;512
15.4.2;The Role of Households and Communities;512
15.5;New Institutional Settings to Encourage Reforestation;513
15.5.1;A System of Cooperative Advisory Groups;514
15.5.2;Problems in Implementing Change;517
15.5.3;Box 12.2Consultative Principles;518
15.6;Revisiting Resilience;519
15.7;Conclusions;522
15.8;References;523
16;Chapter 13: The Way Forward;526
16.1;Introduction;526
16.2;Alternative Visions of the Future;529
16.2.1;Scenario 1: A Gloomy Outcome;530
16.2.2;Scenario 2: A Modest Improvement;530
16.2.3;Scenario 3: A Conservational Outcome;531
16.3;Some Things We Still Need to Know;532
16.3.1;Ten Ecological Questions;533
16.3.2;Ten Socio-Economic Questions;534
16.4;Finally;536
16.5;References;537
17;Glossary;539
18;Index;544