Khine / Saleh New Science of Learning

Cognition, Computers and Collaboration in Education
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-1-4419-5716-0
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 607 Seiten

The earliest educational software simply transferred print material from the page to the monitor. Since then, the Internet and other digital media have brought students an ever-expanding, low-cost knowledge base and the opportunity to interact with minds around the globe-while running the risk of shortening their attention spans, isolating them from interpersonal contact, and subjecting them to information overload. The New Science of Learning: Cognition, Computers and Collaboration in Education deftly explores the multiple relationships found among these critical elements in students' increasingly complex and multi-paced educational experience. Starting with instructors' insights into the cognitive effects of digital media-a diverse range of viewpoints with little consensus-this cutting-edge resource acknowledges the double-edged potential inherent in computer-based education and its role in shaping students' thinking capabilities. Accordingly, the emphasis is on strategies that maximize the strengths and compensate for the negative aspects of digital learning, including: Group cognition as a foundation for learning Metacognitive control of learning and remembering Higher education course development using open education resources Designing a technology-oriented teacher professional development model Supporting student collaboration with digital video tools Teaching and learning through social annotation practices The New Science of Learning: Cognition, Computers and Collaboration in Education brings emerging challenges and innovative ideas into sharp focus for researchers in educational psychology, instructional design, education technologies, and the learning sciences.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Khine, Myint Swe

Saleh, Issa M.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;6
1.1;References;10
2;Contents;12
3;Contributors;16
4;About the Contributors;20
5;Part I Cognition and New Science of Learning;36
5.1;1 New Digital Media and Their Potential Cognitive Impact on Youth Learning;37
5.1.1; Introduction;37
5.1.2; Methods;38
5.1.3; Findings and Discussion;39
5.1.3.1; The Changing Youth Environment;40
5.1.3.1.1; Demographic Trends;40
5.1.3.1.2; The Rise in Extracurricular Commitments;40
5.1.3.2; NDM's Impact on Youth Learning;41
5.1.3.2.1; Changes in Student Attention;42
5.1.3.2.2; Changes in Information Preferences;44
5.1.3.2.3; Changes in Student Research Practices;46
5.1.3.2.4; Changes in the Student--Educator Relationship;49
5.1.3.2.5; Changes in the Student--Student Relationship;51
5.1.4; Conclusion;53
5.2;References;10
5.3;2 Group Cognition as a Foundation for the New Scienceof Learning;57
5.3.1; The Need for a New Science of Group Cognition;58
5.3.2; The Construct of Group Cognition;60
5.3.3; The Group Unit of Description;61
5.3.4; A Model of the New Science;63
5.3.5; The Nature of the New Science;65
5.3.5.1; Group Cognition in a Virtual Math Team (Research Question);65
5.3.5.2; Non-laboratory Experimental Design (Validity);66
5.3.5.3; Data Collection at the Group Level of Description (Unit of Analysis);67
5.3.5.4; Instrumentation and Data Formats (Objectivity);68
5.3.5.5; Collaborative Data Sessions (Reliability);70
5.3.5.6; Describing Group Practices (Generalizability);72
5.3.6; The Foundational Role of Group Cognition;73
5.4;References;75
5.5;3 An Embodied/Grounded Cognition Perspective on Educational Technology;79
5.5.1; Grounded/Embodied Cognition;79
5.5.2; Gaining Embodied/Grounded Experiences from Video Games;80
5.5.3; Learning from Graphical Computer Simulations with Movement and Animation;81
5.5.4; Creating Video Games to Embody Understanding;83
5.5.5; Conclusions;85
5.6;References;85
5.7;4 Features of Computerized Multimedia Environments that Support Vicarious Learning Processes;87
5.7.1; Environmental Features Supporting Vicarious Comprehension and Learning;88
5.7.1.1; Focus on Comprehension;88
5.7.1.2; Focus on Learning;93
5.7.2; Overt Activities Designed to Support Vicarious Learning Processes;100
5.7.3; Summary and Conclusions;105
5.8;References;107
5.9;5 Human Memory and the New Science of Learning;112
5.9.1; Introduction;112
5.9.2; Cognitive Perspectives on Learning;113
5.9.2.1; Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory;114
5.9.2.1.1; Learning and Development Depend on Learners' Experiences;114
5.9.2.1.2; Learners Are Mentally Active in Their Attempts to Make Sense of Their Experiences;114
5.9.2.1.3; Learners Construct Knowledge;115
5.9.2.1.4; Knowledge that Is Constructed Depends on Learners' Prior Knowledge;115
5.9.2.1.5; Learning Is Enhanced in a Social Environment;115
5.9.2.1.6; Learning Requires Practice and Feedback;116
5.9.2.2; A Model of Human Memory;116
5.9.3; Memory Stores;117
5.9.3.1; Sensory Memory;117
5.9.3.2; Working Memory;117
5.9.3.2.1; A Model of Working Memory;118
5.9.3.2.2; Limitations of Working Memory;119
5.9.3.2.3; Reducing Cognitive Load: Accommodating the Limitations of Working Memory;121
5.9.3.3; Long-Term Memory;122
5.9.3.3.1; Representing Declarative Knowledge in Long-Term Memory;123
5.9.3.3.2; Representing Procedural Knowledge in Long-Term Memory;125
5.9.4; Cognitive Processes;126
5.9.4.1; Attention;127
5.9.4.1.1; Attracting and Maintaining Attention;127
5.9.4.2; Perception;127
5.9.4.3; Encoding;128
5.9.4.3.1; Imagery;129
5.9.4.3.2; Organization;130
5.9.4.3.3; Schema Activation;130
5.9.4.3.4; Elaboration;131
5.9.4.3.5; The Importance of Cognitive Activity;132
5.9.4.4; Forgetting;133
5.9.4.4.1; Forgetting as Interference;133
5.9.4.4.2; Forgetting as Retrieval Failure;134
5.9.5; Metacognition: Knowledge and Control of Cognitive Processes;134
5.9.6; Putting the Memory Model into Perspective;135
5.9.7; Summary;136
5.10;References;137
5.11;6 Metacognitive Control of Learning and Remembering;141
5.11.1; Introduction;141
5.11.2; Interplay Between Metacognitive Monitoring and Control;142
5.11.2.1; Monitoring of Ongoing Learning;142
5.11.2.2; Judgments of Learning as an Index of Current Learning;143
5.11.2.3; Monitoring of Retrieval Processes and Control of Output;143
5.11.3; The Study of Metacognitive Control;144
5.11.4; Effectiveness of Metacognitive Control;144
5.11.4.1; Self-Pacing of Study;144
5.11.4.2; Devising Study Schedules;145
5.11.4.3; Selection of Items for Study and Re-study;146
5.11.4.4; Strategic Use of Self-Testing;147
5.11.4.5; Accommodating Study to Anticipated Test Conditions;147
5.11.4.6; Retrieval Strategies;147
5.11.5; Improving Metacognitive Control;148
5.11.5.1; Improving Monitoring;148
5.11.5.2; Improving Control at Encoding Via Direct Instruction;148
5.11.5.3; Improving Control at Encoding via Experience;149
5.11.5.4; Improving Control at Retrieval Via Direct Instruction;153
5.11.5.5; Improving Control at Retrieval Via Experience;155
5.11.6; Role of Information Technology;156
5.11.6.1; Implementing Metacognitive Control;156
5.11.6.2; Training Metacognitive Control;157
5.11.7; Summary;157
5.12;References;158
5.13;7 Ethnic Differences on Students' ApproachesINTbreak; to Learning: Self-Regulatory Cognitive and Motivational Predictors of Academic Achievement for Latino/a and White College Students;164
5.13.1; Achievement Differences Among Subgroups in Higher Education: Social and Cultural Factors;165
5.13.2; Secondary Effects: Opportunity to Learn and Prior Knowledge;168
5.13.3; Cognitive and Motivational Factors in Learning and Achievement;168
5.13.4; Summary and Purpose of the Study;172
5.13.5; Method;173
5.13.5.1; Research Context;173
5.13.5.2; Subjects;173
5.13.5.3; Measures;174
5.13.5.4; Procedure;175
5.13.5.5; Data Analysis;176
5.13.6; Results;176
5.13.6.1; Reliabilities, Descriptive Statistics, and Intercorrelations;176
5.13.6.2; Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis;179
5.13.6.3; Structural Equation Model Analysis;180
5.13.6.4; Summary Findings;184
5.13.7; Discussion and Conclusion;184
5.14;References;187
5.15;8 Intuitions, Conceptions and Frameworks: Modelling Student Cognition in Science Learning;193
5.15.1; Modelling Student Cognition in Relation to Academic Learning;193
5.15.1.1; Student Learning Difficulties in Science Subjects;194
5.15.1.2; Examples of Students' Ideas;195
5.15.1.3; The Uncertain Nature of Students' Alternative Ideas;196
5.15.2; Considering Cognitive Development and Conceptual Learning;198
5.15.2.1; Spontaneous Learning;198
5.15.2.2; The Cognitive and the Conceptual;199
5.15.2.3; Conceptual Development;201
5.15.3; Drawing upon Cognitive Science;201
5.15.3.1; Folk Psychology and Educational Research;202
5.15.3.2; Thinking, Knowing and Ideas;202
5.15.3.3; Memory;203
5.15.3.4; Situated Knowledge and Distributed Cognition;204
5.15.3.5; Perception and Conception;205
5.15.3.6; Constructing Knowledge;206
5.15.3.7; Conceptual Change;208
5.15.4; Towards a Model of Cognition that Supports Research into Student Learning;209
5.16;References;210
5.17;9 An Analysis of Design Strategies for Creating Educational Experiences in Virtual Environments;213
5.17.1; Introduction;213
5.17.2; User-Centered Design;214
5.17.3; Integrating Content;220
5.17.4; Visual Representation of Content;224
5.17.5; Motivation;227
5.17.6; Conclusion;231
5.18;References;232
6;Part II Computers and New Science of Learning;234
6.1;10 Redesigning Testing: Operationalizing the New Scienceof Learning;235
6.1.1; Introduction: Testing;235
6.1.2; Historical Preamble: The Broad Function of Testing and the Birth of a Specific Testing Industry;237
6.1.3; Reflecting on Testing: The Need for a Theory of Learning and Clarity About Values;239
6.1.4; Advances in Developmental Science and the Birth of the DiscoTest Initiative;241
6.1.5; DiscoTest: Building the Computer-Based Educational Testing Infrastructure of Tomorrow;243
6.1.6; New Tools Foster New Values: Revisioning Education and Testing;249
6.2;References;251
6.3;11 Self-regulated Learning with MetaTutor: Advancing the Science of Learning with MetaCognitive Tools;253
6.3.1; Introduction;253
6.3.2; Metaphor: MetaCognitive Tools for Enhancing Learning;254
6.3.3; Theoretical Framework: Self-regulated Learning;257
6.3.3.1; Theoretical Assumptions about SRL and MetaTutor;259
6.3.4; Synthesis of SRL Data on Learning with Hypermedia;260
6.3.5; MetaTutor: A Hypermedia Learning Environment for Biology;262
6.3.6; Preliminary Data on SRL with MetaTutor;264
6.3.7; Implications for the Design of an Adaptive MetaTutor;268
6.3.8; Summary;270
6.4;References;271
6.5;12 New LearningOld Methods? How E-research Might Change Technology-Enhanced Learning Research;276
6.5.1; Introduction;276
6.5.2; Grids, Clouds, and Web 2.0 for Learning Research;277
6.5.3;Innovation and Inquiry Practices: Distributed Research ;280
6.5.3.1; ICT for Educational Innovation;281
6.5.3.1.1; A Teacher-Led Inquiry Platform;283
6.5.4; Process Data Streams and Video Data;285
6.5.4.1; When Data is Flowing in Streams;286
6.5.4.2; Collaborative Analysis of Video Recordings;289
6.5.5; Mixed-Method Research: Establishing Trust in Findings;292
6.5.5.1; Provenance of Data and Findings;293
6.5.6; Conclusions;295
6.6;References;296
6.7;13 Designing Higher Education Courses Using Open Educational Resources;300
6.7.1; Introduction;300
6.7.2; Online Versus Face-to-Face Teaching;302
6.7.3; Open Educational Resources;303
6.7.4; The Process;304
6.7.5; The Conceptual Framework;305
6.7.6; Conclusions;306
6.8;References;308
6.9;14 The Evolution of an Automated Reading Strategy Tutor: From the Classroom to a Game-Enhanced Automated System;310
6.9.1; Introduction;310
6.9.2; Self-Explanation Reading Training;311
6.9.2.1; SERT: One-on-One;312
6.9.2.1.1; SERT Introduction;312
6.9.2.1.2; SERT Practice and Demonstration;312
6.9.2.1.3; Evaluation of One-on-One SERT;313
6.9.2.2; SERT: Group Training;314
6.9.2.2.1; Group SERT Introduction;314
6.9.2.2.2; Group SERT Demonstration;314
6.9.2.2.3; Group SERT Practice;315
6.9.2.2.4; Evaluation of Group SERT;315
6.9.3; Discussion;316
6.9.4; iSTART;316
6.9.5; iSTART Modules;317
6.9.5.1; Introduction Module;317
6.9.5.2; Demonstration Module;319
6.9.5.3; Practice Modules;320
6.9.6; Providing Feedback in iSTART;322
6.9.7; Evaluations of iSTART;323
6.9.8; iSTART Discussion;324
6.9.9; iSTART-ME;325
6.9.10; iSTART-ME Modules;325
6.9.10.1; Extended Practice;326
6.9.10.2; MiBoard Game;327
6.9.11; iSTART-ME Discussion;328
6.9.12; General Discussion;328
6.10;References;329
6.11;15 Experiences in the Field: The Evolution of a Technology-Oriented Teacher Professional Development Model;334
6.11.1; Introduction;334
6.11.2; Technology Context: The Instructional Architect;335
6.11.3; Pedagogical Context: Problem-Based Learning;337
6.11.4; Evolution of the Professional Development Models;338
6.11.4.1; Model 1: Authentic Problem and Design Centered;338
6.11.4.1.1; Evaluation Findings;339
6.11.4.2; Model 2: Problem-Based Learning: Simple to Complex Problems;341
6.11.4.2.1; Evaluation Findings;342
6.11.4.3; Model 3: Problem-Based Learning: Authentic Design;344
6.11.4.4; Model 3: Evaluation Findings;345
6.11.5; Long-Term Impact;347
6.11.6; Conclusion;347
6.12;References;349
6.13;16 A Dialogic Approach to Technology-Enhanced Education for the Global Knowledge Society;351
6.13.1; The Idea of the Knowledge Society;351
6.13.2; Thinking Skills for the Knowledge Age;352
6.13.3; A Dialogic Reconceptualisation of Higher Order Thinking Skills;353
6.13.4; A Dialogic Foundation for the Design of Educational Technology;355
6.13.5; Towards a Framework for the Design of Educational Technology that can Teach Thinking as Dialogue Across Difference;356
6.13.5.1; Opening Dialogic Spaces;356
6.13.5.2; Widening Dialogic Spaces;357
6.13.5.3; Deepen Dialogic Space;357
6.13.5.4; Teach Content Through Induction into Fields of Dialogue;358
6.13.5.5; An Example of Broadening Dialogic Space;359
6.13.5.6; ICT and Dialogue Between Media;360
6.13.5.7; Blogging as an Example of Induction into and Creation of Dialogic Space;361
6.13.6; Discussion and Conclusion;362
6.14;References;363
6.15;17 Conceptual Representation EmbodiedINTbreak; in Hypermedia: An Approach to Promoting Knowledge Co-Construction;366
6.15.1; Conceptual Representations Embodied in Hypermedia: Promoting Co-Regulated Learning;366
6.15.2; Hypermedia as a Representational Tool;366
6.15.3; StructureBehaviorFunction as a Conceptual Representation;367
6.15.4; Self-regulated and Co-regulated Learning;369
6.15.5; Method;370
6.15.5.1; Participants;370
6.15.5.2; Materials;370
6.15.5.3; Procedure;371
6.15.5.4; Coding and Analysis;372
6.15.6; Results;374
6.15.6.1; Quantitative Results;374
6.15.6.2; Qualitative Results;376
6.15.7; Discussion;378
6.16;References;379
6.17;18 Virtual Worlds for Young People in a Program Context: Lessons from Four Case Studies;382
6.17.1; Introduction;382
6.17.2; Zora: A Constructionist Multiuser Virtual Environment;384
6.17.3; Case Study 1: Multicultural Summer C388
6.17.4; Case Study 2: ACT;392
6.17.5; Case Study 3: Transplant Program;396
6.17.6; Case Study 4: ClubZora: An International Network;401
6.17.7; Conclusion;405
6.18;References;406
6.19;19 New Technologies, Learning Systems, and Communication: Reducing Complexity in the Educational System;409
6.19.1; Introduction;409
6.19.2; Theoretical Framework;410
6.19.2.1; Introduction to Complexity in Education;410
6.19.2.2; Systems and Environments;411
6.19.2.3; Complexity and Contingency;411
6.19.2.4; Psychic Systems and Social Systems;412
6.19.2.5; Communication;412
6.19.2.6; Learning and Teaching;413
6.19.3; Background;415
6.19.4; Challenges for the Educational System;417
6.19.4.1; Focus 1: Teachers, Their ICT Skills, and Didactical/Pedagogical Skills;417
6.19.4.2; Design of Environments for Teaching;420
6.19.4.3; Focus 2: Students' Learning with Media and Technology;421
6.19.4.4; Focus 3: Management and Technology Issues;423
6.19.5; Further Researchan Invitation;424
6.20;References;424
7;Part III Collaboration and New Science of Learning;428
7.1;20 Fostering Higher Levels of Learning Using Diverse Instructional Strategies with Internet Communication Tools;429
7.1.1; Introduction;429
7.1.2; Progressive Pedagogies;430
7.1.3; Guiding Theoretical Framework: The Practical Inquiry Model;431
7.1.4; Integrating Progressive Pedagogies into the Learning Experience;435
7.1.5; Quantitative Content Analysis);436
7.1.6; Ecological Validity of the Coders;442
7.1.7; Discussion;442
7.1.8; Conclusions;444
7.2;References;445
7.3;21 Windows into Teaching and Learning Through Social Annotation Practices;448
7.3.1; HyLighter;448
7.3.2; Theoretical Underpinnings;451
7.3.3; Interactive Reading;453
7.3.3.1; Articles;453
7.3.3.2; Unpublished Document;457
7.3.3.3; Case Studies;459
7.3.3.4; Outcomes;460
7.3.4; Collaborative Concept Mapping;461
7.3.5; Hypermedia-Enhanced Lesson Plans;465
7.3.6; Collaboratively Developed Lesson Plans;466
7.3.7; Limitations;469
7.3.8; Conclusions;469
7.4;References;470
7.5;22 Orchestrating Learning in a One-to-One Technology Classroom;472
7.5.1; Introduction;472
7.5.2; CSCL Scripts in Face-to-Face Classroom Learning;473
7.5.3; Learning Design and Delivery Tools for One-to-One Scenarios;474
7.5.4; What We Mean by One-to-One Classroom Orchestration and a Proposed Framework;475
7.5.5; Example Scenarios for the One-to-One Classroom;476
7.5.6; A Scenarios Designer for a One-to-One Technology Classroom;478
7.5.7; SceDer Authoring and COML;479
7.5.8; GS-SceDer Learning Environment: A Learning Space for One-to-One Scenarios;481
7.5.9; Results;483
7.5.10; Conclusion;485
7.6;References;486
7.7;23 Designing Online Learning Environments for Professional Development;489
7.7.1; Introduction ;489
7.7.2; Conceptual Framework;490
7.7.2.1; Exploring the Foundations of Design with Digital Media;491
7.7.3; Overview of Course Design;493
7.7.3.1; Design Elements;494
7.7.4; Participants;495
7.7.5; Data Sources and Analysis;495
7.7.6; Emerging Issues;496
7.7.6.1; Teachers' Conceptions of Classroom Inquiry;496
7.7.6.2; Teachers' Self-Understandings as Agents of Change;498
7.7.7; The Problem of Validity;500
7.7.7.1; Effectiveness of the Course Design;501
7.7.8; Conclusions;502
7.8;References;502
7.9;24 Knowledge Building/Knowledge Forum:The Transformation of Classroom Discourse;505
7.9.1; Background;505
7.9.1.1; Classroom Discourse;505
7.9.2; Online Discourse;507
7.9.3; Methodology;508
7.9.4; Participants;509
7.9.5; Data Analysis;511
7.9.6; Results;512
7.9.6.1; An Ongoing Questioning Process;512
7.9.7; An Emerging Explanatory Process;515
7.9.8; Discussion, Pedagogical Implications, and Future Steps;517
7.10;References;519
7.11;25 Digital Video Tools in the Classroom: How to Support Meaningful Collaboration and Critical Advanced Thinking of Students?;522
7.11.1; Introduction;522
7.11.2; Digital Video in Education;523
7.11.3; Tools and Tasks for Learning with Digital Videoan Integrated Approach;525
7.11.3.1; Video Tools to Guide Collaboration;525
7.11.3.1.1; Tools for Collaborative Observation and Analysis;526
7.11.3.1.2; Tools for Collaborative Hypervideo Structuring;527
7.11.3.2; Collaborative Visual Design---a Cognitive Framework;529
7.11.4; Instructional Framing of Collaborative Visual Design: Approaches, Results, Problems;532
7.11.4.1; Pursuing Instructional Goals and Developing a Student-Centered Learning Task;533
7.11.5; Integration into Noisy Classroom SettingsInitial Results from a Field Study;535
7.11.6; Conclusions;537
7.12;References;538
7.13;26 Technology for Classroom Orchestration;543
7.13.1; Introduction;543
7.13.2; It Works Well (In My Class);543
7.13.3; The Orchestration Model;545
7.13.3.1; Teacher-Centrism;546
7.13.3.2; Cross-Plane Integration;548
7.13.3.3; Sequentiality;549
7.13.3.4; Time Management;550
7.13.3.5; Physicality;551
7.13.4; The Ecosystem Model;552
7.13.4.1; Species;552
7.13.4.2; Selection;553
7.13.4.3; Legacy;554
7.13.4.4; Sustainability;555
7.13.5; The SWISH Model and the ManyScripts Environment;555
7.13.5.1; The ''SWISH'' model;555
7.13.5.2; The ManyScripts Environment;557
7.13.5.3; Design Factors;557
7.13.6; The Erfahrraum Model and the TinkerLamp Environment;559
7.13.6.1; The ''Erfahrraum'' Model;559
7.13.6.2; The TinkerLamp Environment;560
7.13.6.3; Design Factors;562
7.13.7; The Shelve and Lantern Environments;563
7.13.7.1; The Recitation Section Model;563
7.13.7.2; The Lantern Environment;563
7.13.7.3; Design Factors;564
7.13.8; Conclusions;564
7.13.8.1; Implications for Learning Technologies;564
7.13.8.2; Implications for Design-Based Research;566
7.13.8.3; Orchestration as Constraints Management;566
7.13.8.4; Final Word;567
7.14;References;568
7.15;27 Knowledge Building in Society 2.0: Challengesand Opportunities;571
7.15.1; Introduction;571
7.15.2; Knowledge Building;572
7.15.3; Web 2.0 and Knowledge Building;573
7.15.4; Social Learning Theories Supporting Web 2.0;574
7.15.4.1; Learning Through Thinking and Reflection;574
7.15.4.2; Learning Through Communication, Participation, and Interaction;576
7.15.4.3; Connecting Two Strands of Theories---Agency and Collective Cognitive Responsibility;577
7.15.5; Applications of Web 2.0 Technologies;577
7.15.5.1; Blogs;577
7.15.5.2; Wikis;579
7.15.5.3; Social Bookmarking/Tagging;580
7.15.6; Conclusion;580
7.16;References;582
7.17;28 Innovations in Culturally Based Science Education Through Partnerships and Community;586
7.17.1; Introduction;586
7.17.2; Background;586
7.17.3; Challenges to and the Need for Innovation;587
7.17.4; Innovation: Partnerships and Communities;589
7.17.5; Research in Indigenous Communities: Background and Organization;590
7.17.6; The Design Process: The Early Stages;591
7.17.7; Community-Based Design: A Closer Look;595
7.17.8; Partnership in Community: Some Consequences;602
7.17.9; Discussion;603
7.17.10; Conclusions;606
7.18;References;607
7.19;29 New Science of Learning: Exploring the Future of Education;610
7.19.1; Introduction;610
7.19.2; Cognition and New Science of Learning;610
7.19.3; Computer and New Science of Learning;612
7.19.4; Collaboration and New Science of Learning;615
7.19.5; Conclusion;618
8;References;619
9;Subject Index;621

Leseproben

Chapter 1 New Digital Media and Their Potential (p. 3-4)

Cognitive Impact on Youth Learning

Margaret Weigel1, Celka Straughn, and Howard Gardner
The Developing Minds and Digital Media Project, Harvard University, Project Zero, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA, e-mail: [e-mail]; [e-mail]
Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas, 1301 Mississippi St, Lawrence, KS 66045, e-mail: [e-mail]

Introduction

In his 2009 book Grown up Digital, Don Tapscott presents a very positive view of the new digital media (NDM). “The early evidence suggests that the digital immersion [for youth] has a tangible, positive impact. Not only do video game players notice more, but they have more highly developed partial skills. . . the Net Gen mind seems to be incredibly flexible, adaptable and multimedia savvy” (Tapscott, 2008, p. 98). In this new order, others praise the transformational power of social networks which can topple (or at least circumvent) existing hierarchical structures (Benkler, 2007; Shirkey, 2009; Surowiecki, 2004) and potentially reinvent civic engagement (Pettingill, 2008).

Tapscott and his like-mined peers do not represent a consensus. A collection of scholars, educators, and concerned citizens counter it. Rather than ushering in a utopian era of self-directed youth learning across time and space, NDM are in fact making us “dumber” (Bauerlein, 2008) and actually harming our brains (Healy, 1999). While Tapscott and others salute the democratizing power of information on the Internet, Jean Twenge expresses concern: “Suddenly, you don’t have to write a textbook or have a column in a major newspaper for thousands of people to read your words. . . In this environment, there is no authority: information is free, diffuse, and comes from everyone. (Whether it is correct is another matter)” (Twenge, 2006, p. 30).

Of course, it is possible that each of these sides has some truth to it; it is also possible that the NDM will not exert much of an effect. In education, for example, despite all of the predictions—positive and negative—about radio, television, slide projector, and so on, the most likely generalization is that not much has happened in education as a direct result of the introduction of earlier instantiations of new media. One reason for the enormous range of opinion about the NDM is that it is extremely difficult to secure significant data on these issues. The ideal experiments—in which one would divide a polity in half, at random, expose one half to the full range of the NDM, and make it impossible for the other half to have any exposure whatsoever—cannot be conducted. The best hope is to triangulate from a number of sources and see what picture(s) gradually emerge. Studies addressing youth engagements online have leaned toward the social at the expense of considering cognitive or developmental implications (i.e., Blais, Craig, Pepler, & Connolly, 2008; Gee, 2004; Jenkins, Purushotma, Clinton, Weigel, & Robison, 2006; Ito et al., 2008). Those who do address developmental issues (Greenfield, 2004; Schouten, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2007; Subrahmanyama, Greenfield, Kraut, & Gross, 2001; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007) are largely descriptive and do not consider ethical issues.

In our own research for The Developing Minds and Digital Media (DM2) project1 (a component of the GoodWork Project2 at Harvard Project Zero), we wanted to secure a more holistic record of change related to NDM. Our research was driven by the basic question of whether NDM may, or may not, be impacting the way youth think and behave. We focus in particular on changes to students’ “habits of mind,” the mental models which underlie and direct how they engage with the world.