Gonçalves / Margarido Materials for Construction and Civil Engineering

Science, Processing, and Design
2015
ISBN: 978-3-319-08236-3
Verlag: Springer Nature Switzerland
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 938 Seiten

This expansive volume presents the essential topics related to construction materials composition and their practical application in structures and civil installations. The book's diverse slate of expert authors assemble invaluable case examples and performance data on the most important groups of materials used in construction, highlighting aspects such as nomenclature, the properties, the manufacturing processes, the selection criteria, the products/applications, the life cycle and recyclability, and the normalization. Civil Engineering Materials: Science, Processing, and Design is ideal for practicing architects; civil, construction, and structural engineers, and serves as a comprehensive reference for students of these disciplines.This book also:·       Provides a substantial and detailed overview of traditional materials used in structures and civil infrastructure·       Discusses properties of natural and synthetic materials in construction and materials' manufacturing processes·       Addresses topics important to professionals working with structural materials, such as corrosion, nanomaterials, materials life cycle, not often covered outside of journal literature ·       Diverse author team presents expect perspective from civil engineering, construction, and architecture ·       Features a detailed glossary of terms and over 400 illustrations 

M. Clara Gonçalves is a Professor in the Chemical Engineering Department at the Technical University of Lisbon.Fernanda Margarido is a Professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department at the Technical University of Lisbon.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Gonçalves, M. Clara

Margarido, Fernanda

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Glossary;8
3;Contents;44
4;1: Hydraulic Binders;46
4.1;1.1 Introduction;47
4.2;1.2 History of Hydraulic Binders;50
4.3;1.3 Hydraulic Binder´s Industry Context;50
4.4;1.4 Common Cements;53
4.4.1;1.4.1 Portland Cement;56
4.4.1.1;1.4.1.1 Manufacturing Process;56
4.4.1.1.1;Raw Materials Preparation;56
4.4.1.1.2;Production of Cement Clinker;58
4.4.1.2;1.4.1.2 Hydration;64
4.4.1.3;1.4.1.3 Correlation Microstructure-Properties;67
4.4.1.4;1.4.1.4 Chemical Degradation Reactions;69
4.4.2;1.4.2 Blended Cements;73
4.4.2.1;1.4.2.1 Blended Cements with Cementitious Materials;73
4.4.2.2;1.4.2.2 Blended Cements with Limestone;79
4.5;1.5 Other Hydraulic Binders´ Families;79
4.5.1;1.5.1 Hydraulic Limes;80
4.5.2;1.5.2 Special Portland Cements;81
4.5.3;1.5.3 Aluminous Cements;82
4.5.4;1.5.4 Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cements;86
4.5.5;1.5.5 Alkali-Activated Cements;87
4.6;1.6 Final Remarks;89
4.7;Annex I;89
4.8;References;93
5;2: Renders;98
5.1;2.1 Historical Introduction;99
5.2;2.2 Mortars Classification;102
5.2.1;2.2.1 Functional Classification;102
5.2.2;2.2.2 Classification According to the Binder Type;103
5.2.3;2.2.3 Classification According to the Properties and/or Purpose;104
5.2.4;2.2.4 Classification According to the Production Site;104
5.2.5;2.2.5 Simplified Nomenclature Adopted in This Chapter;105
5.3;2.3 Functional Requirements and Performance Parameters;105
5.3.1;2.3.1 Functional Requirements;105
5.3.2;2.3.2 Prescriptive Specification/Performance-Based Formulation;107
5.3.3;2.3.3 Performance Parameters and Test Methods;108
5.3.3.1;2.3.3.1 Workability;108
5.3.3.2;2.3.3.2 Water Retention;110
5.3.3.3;2.3.3.3 Shrinkage;111
5.3.3.4;2.3.3.4 Adherence to the Substrate;113
5.3.3.5;2.3.3.5 Internal Mechanical Resistance;115
5.3.3.6;2.3.3.6 Cracking Resistance/Deformation Capacity;118
5.3.3.7;2.3.3.7 Surface Resistance;119
5.3.3.8;2.3.3.8 Water-Related Performance;121
5.3.3.8.1;Porosity/Porometry;122
5.3.3.8.2;Capillarity;123
5.3.3.8.3;Permeability to Water;125
5.3.3.8.4;Permeability to Water Vapour;125
5.3.3.9;2.3.3.9 Chemical Resistance;126
5.3.3.9.1;Soluble Salts Content;126
5.3.3.9.2;pH and Conductivity Values;128
5.3.3.10;2.3.3.10 Surface Condition (Finish);128
5.3.3.11;2.3.3.11 Durability (Service Life);129
5.4;2.4 Design and Execution;130
5.4.1;2.4.1 Constituent Materials;131
5.4.1.1;2.4.1.1 Binders;131
5.4.1.2;2.4.1.2 Aggregates;133
5.4.1.3;2.4.1.3 Admixtures;134
5.4.1.4;2.4.1.4 Additions;135
5.4.1.5;2.4.1.5 Water;136
5.4.2;2.4.2 General Aspects of Design and Execution of Rendering Mortars;136
5.4.3;2.4.3 Constituent Coats of Renders;139
5.4.4;2.4.4 Technology of Manufacturing, Preparation and Application;141
5.4.5;2.4.5 Types of Finish;144
5.5;2.5 Pathology and Diagnosis;145
5.5.1;2.5.1 General Characterization of the Pathology;145
5.5.2;2.5.2 The Most Common Anomalies in Renders and Their Probable Causes;149
5.5.2.1;2.5.2.1 Anomalies Associated with Water;149
5.5.2.2;2.5.2.2 Cracking and Fissures;149
5.5.2.3;2.5.2.3 Efflorescence and Cryptoflorescence;149
5.5.2.4;2.5.2.4 Biodegradation;150
5.5.2.5;2.5.2.5 Dirt;150
5.5.2.6;2.5.2.6 Loss of Adherence;151
5.5.2.7;2.5.2.7 Loss of Cohesion or Disaggregation;151
5.5.2.8;2.5.2.8 Erosion;151
5.5.3;2.5.3 Classification of Diagnostic Methods;152
5.6;2.6 Maintenance and Rehabilitation;156
5.6.1;2.6.1 Maintenance Strategies;156
5.6.2;2.6.2 Classification of the Maintenance/Repair Techniques;156
5.6.3;2.6.3 Interventions in Renders of Ancient Buildings;157
5.7;2.7 Standardization;158
5.8;Books/Magazines/Journals;159
5.9;Associations/Organizations/Societies;163
5.10;References;164
6;3: Gypsum Plasters;168
6.1;3.1 Historic Introduction;169
6.2;3.2 Gypsum Plaster Classification;171
6.3;3.3 Functional Requirements and Performance Parameters;173
6.3.1;3.3.1 Gypsum-Based Coatings;173
6.3.1.1;3.3.1.1 Thickness and Hardness;174
6.3.1.2;3.3.1.2 Planeness, Verticality and Surface Regularity;175
6.3.1.3;3.3.1.3 Adherence to the Substrate;176
6.3.1.4;3.3.1.4 Flexural and Compressive Strength;176
6.3.1.5;3.3.1.5 Resistance to the Attachment and Development of Moulds;177
6.3.1.6;3.3.1.6 Other Performance Parameters;177
6.3.1.7;3.3.1.7 Durability;177
6.3.2;3.3.2 Synthetic Binder-Based Coatings;178
6.3.2.1;3.3.2.1 Resistance to Saponification;178
6.3.2.2;3.3.2.2 Planeness, Verticality and Surface Regularity;178
6.3.2.3;3.3.2.3 Adherence to the Substrate;178
6.3.2.4;3.3.2.4 Resistance to Degradation Actions Due to Normal Use of the Spaces (Shocks, Friction, Water and Dirt);178
6.3.2.5;3.3.2.5 Resistance to the Attachment and Development of Moulds;180
6.3.2.6;3.3.2.6 Durability;180
6.4;3.4 Design and Execution;182
6.4.1;3.4.1 Constituent Materials;182
6.4.1.1;3.4.1.1 Gypsum;182
6.4.1.2;3.4.1.2 Air Lime;183
6.4.1.3;3.4.1.3 Synthetic Binders;183
6.4.1.4;3.4.1.4 Mineral Fillers;183
6.4.1.5;3.4.1.5 Water;184
6.4.1.6;3.4.1.6 Additions (Pigments);184
6.4.1.7;3.4.1.7 Admixtures;184
6.4.2;3.4.2 Traditional Gypsum Plasters;185
6.4.2.1;3.4.2.1 Constitution;185
6.4.2.2;3.4.2.2 Application On-Site;188
6.4.3;3.4.3 Nontraditional Plasters;190
6.4.3.1;3.4.3.1 Constitution;191
6.4.3.2;3.4.3.2 Application On-Site;192
6.5;3.5 Pathology and Diagnosis;208
6.5.1;3.5.1 Classification of the Anomalies;208
6.5.2;3.5.2 Classification of the Causes Associated with the Anomalies;210
6.5.3;3.5.3 Classification of the Diagnostic Methods;212
6.6;3.6 Maintenance and Rehabilitation;216
6.6.1;3.6.1 Maintenance Strategies;216
6.6.2;3.6.2 Classification of the Maintenance/Repair Techniques;218
6.7;3.7 Standardization;222
6.8;Final Note;222
6.9;Books/Magazines/Journals;222
6.10;Associations/Organizations/Societies;226
6.11;Companies/Gypsum Products;226
6.12;References;226
7;4: Concrete;230
7.1;4.1 Concrete with Hydraulic Binders;231
7.1.1;4.1.1 Introduction;231
7.1.2;4.1.2 Historical Overview;232
7.1.2.1;4.1.2.1 Etymology of the Terms Concrete and Betão;232
7.1.2.2;4.1.2.2 Concrete: From Ancient Times to Modernity;232
7.1.3;4.1.3 Regulatory Framework;234
7.1.4;4.1.4 Constituents;239
7.1.4.1;4.1.4.1 Cement;240
7.1.4.2;4.1.4.2 Aggregates;242
7.1.4.3;4.1.4.3 Additions;244
7.1.4.4;4.1.4.4 Admixtures;244
7.1.4.5;4.1.4.5 Water;246
7.1.4.6;4.1.4.6 Fibres;247
7.1.5;4.1.5 The Diversity of Concrete;247
7.1.5.1;4.1.5.1 Diversity of Uses;247
7.1.5.2;4.1.5.2 Diversity of Types of Concretes;247
7.2;4.2 Properties of Concrete;248
7.2.1;4.2.1 Behaviour in Fresh State;248
7.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 Concept of Workability;249
7.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 Test Methods;249
7.2.1.3;4.2.1.3 Factors That Affect Workability;252
7.2.1.4;4.2.1.4 Rheology;253
7.2.1.5;4.2.1.5 Other Properties in Fresh State;254
7.2.2;4.2.2 Properties in Hardened State;256
7.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 Mechanical Strength Properties;256
7.2.2.1.1;Compressive Strength;257
7.2.2.1.2;Tensile Strength;258
7.2.2.1.3;Shear Strength;258
7.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 Deformability;259
7.2.2.2.1;Modulus of Elasticity;259
7.2.2.2.2;Poisson´s Ratio;260
7.2.2.2.3;Shrinkage;261
7.2.2.2.4;Creep;261
7.2.2.2.5;Relaxation;262
7.2.2.2.6;Thermal Expansion;262
7.2.2.3;4.2.2.3 Density;262
7.2.3;4.2.3 Durability of Concrete;262
7.2.3.1;4.2.3.1 Degradation Mechanisms;262
7.2.3.1.1;Degradation Due to Corrosion of the Reinforcements;263
7.2.3.1.2;Degradation of the Concrete Itself;264
7.2.3.2;4.2.3.2 Characterisation of Properties Relating to Durability;267
7.3;4.3 Production, Application and Control;268
7.3.1;4.3.1 Specifying Concrete;268
7.3.2;4.3.2 Methods for Concrete Mix Design;269
7.3.3;4.3.3 Concreting Operations;269
7.3.3.1;4.3.3.1 Casting;270
7.3.3.2;4.3.3.2 Compaction;270
7.3.3.3;4.3.3.3 Curing;271
7.3.3.3.1;Protection;272
7.3.4;4.3.4 Controlling and Checking Conformity;272
7.3.5;4.3.5 Concrete Defects Linked with Concreting;273
7.3.5.1;4.3.5.1 Discolouration;274
7.3.5.2;4.3.5.2 Blistering;274
7.3.5.3;4.3.5.3 Delamination;275
7.3.5.4;4.3.5.4 Bugholes;275
7.3.5.5;4.3.5.5 Sand Streaking;275
7.3.5.6;4.3.5.6 Dusting;276
7.3.5.7;4.3.5.7 Scaling;276
7.3.5.8;4.3.5.8 Honeycombing;277
7.3.5.9;4.3.5.9 Plastic Settlement Cracks;278
7.3.5.9.1;Layer Lines;278
7.4;4.4 Concrete and Sustainability;278
7.5;4.5 Final Considerations;279
7.6;References;280
8;5: Bituminous Binders and Mixtures;282
8.1;5.1 Introduction;283
8.2;5.2 Bitumen and Bituminous Binders;283
8.2.1;5.2.1 General Properties;283
8.2.2;5.2.2 Bituminous Binders;291
8.2.3;5.2.3 Bitumen Emulsions;292
8.3;5.3 Water Proofing Systems;294
8.4;5.4 Bituminous Mixtures;296
8.4.1;5.4.1 Composition and Properties;296
8.4.2;5.4.2 Products and Applications;301
8.4.3;5.4.3 Maintenance, Rehabilitation and Recycling;306
8.5;Standards;308
8.5.1;Books/Magazines/Journals;314
8.5.2;Associations/Organisations/Societies;314
8.5.3;Companies;314
8.6;References;315
9;6: Steel for Civil Construction;317
9.1;6.1 Introduction;317
9.2;6.2 The Crystal Structure of Iron;318
9.3;6.3 Mechanical Properties;320
9.3.1;6.3.1 Elastic Deformation;320
9.3.2;6.3.2 Plastic Deformation;322
9.3.3;6.3.3 Toughness, Ductile Fracture and Brittle Fracture;323
9.3.4;6.3.4 Effect of Temperature;325
9.3.5;6.3.5 Variability of Mechanical Properties;326
9.4;6.4 Effects of Alloy Elements;327
9.4.1;6.4.1 Carbon;327
9.4.2;6.4.2 Other Alloy Elements;329
9.5;6.5 Microstructure;331
9.6;6.6 Optimising Mechanical Properties;333
9.6.1;6.6.1 Work Hardening;333
9.6.2;6.6.2 Heat Treatment;334
9.7;6.7 Welded Construction;337
9.8;6.8 Main Types of Steel Used in Civil Engineering: Uses and Properties;340
9.8.1;6.8.1 Structural Fe-C Steels;341
9.8.2;6.8.2 High Strength Microalloyed Steels;341
9.8.3;6.8.3 Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels;342
9.8.4;6.8.4 Stainless Steels for Welded Construction;342
9.8.5;6.8.5 Summary of Properties;342
9.9;6.9 Portuguese Standards;344
9.10;Conclusion;346
9.11;Bibliography;346
10;7: Ceramics;347
10.1;7.1 Introduction;348
10.2;7.2 Clay Bricks;348
10.2.1;7.2.1 Manufacturing Process;348
10.2.2;7.2.2 Regulations Applicable (Specification and Testing);350
10.2.2.1;7.2.2.1 European Standard EN771-1;350
10.2.2.2;7.2.2.2 European Standards EN772;351
10.2.3;7.2.3 CE Marking;354
10.2.4;7.2.4 Problems with Clay Bricks;355
10.2.4.1;7.2.4.1 Action of Sulphates in Mortars and Plasters [1, 4];355
10.2.4.2;7.2.4.2 Efflorescence and Stains [4];356
10.3;7.3 Clay Roof Tiles;357
10.3.1;7.3.1 Manufacturing Process;357
10.3.2;7.3.2 Regulations Applicable (Specification and Testing);358
10.3.2.1;7.3.2.1 European Standard EN 1304;358
10.3.2.2;7.3.2.2 Testing Standards;358
10.3.3;7.3.3 CE Marking;359
10.3.4;7.3.4 Problems with Clay Roof Tiles;360
10.3.4.1;7.3.4.1 Cracks [2];360
10.3.4.2;7.3.4.2 Accumulation of Moss and Detritus [2];361
10.3.4.3;7.3.4.3 Peeling Caused by Ice [2];361
10.3.4.4;7.3.4.4 Variations in Colour [2];362
10.4;7.4 Ceramic Wall and Floor Tiles;362
10.4.1;7.4.1 Manufacturing Process;362
10.4.1.1;7.4.1.1 Dry Pressing;364
10.4.1.2;7.4.1.2 Extrusion (Semi-wet);365
10.4.1.3;7.4.1.3 Extrusion (Dry);365
10.4.2;7.4.2 Regulations Applicable (Specification and Testing);365
10.4.2.1;7.4.2.1 European Standard EN14411;365
10.4.2.2;7.4.2.2 Testing Standards (EN ISO 10545);367
10.4.3;7.4.3 CE Marking;373
10.4.4;7.4.4 Problems with Ceramic Tiles;374
10.5;7.5 Recovery of Ceramic Waste;376
10.6;References;377
11;8: Glass;379
11.1;8.1 Glass in Construction and Architecture: Brief History;380
11.2;8.2 Glass Composition and Structure;385
11.2.1;8.2.1 What Is Glass?;385
11.2.1.1;8.2.1.1 Zachariasen Rules or Crystallochemical Theory;388
11.2.2;8.2.2 Raw Materials;391
11.3;8.3 Glass Technology;394
11.3.1;8.3.1 Melting, Homogenisation and Fining;394
11.3.2;8.3.2 Flat Glass-Forming Techniques;397
11.3.2.1;8.3.2.1 Roman Glass;397
11.3.2.2;8.3.2.2 Mediaeval Glass;397
11.3.2.3;8.3.2.3 Crown Glass;397
11.3.2.4;8.3.2.4 Colburn-Libbey-Owens Glass;397
11.3.2.5;8.3.2.5 Fourcault-Pittsburgh Glass;397
11.3.2.6;8.3.2.6 Float Glass;398
11.3.3;8.3.3 Annealing;400
11.3.4;8.3.4 Flow Chart of Float Glass Production Process;402
11.4;8.4 Glass Properties;404
11.4.1;8.4.1 Optical Properties;404
11.4.1.1;8.4.1.1 Reflection;405
11.4.1.1.1;Specular Reflection;405
11.4.1.1.2;Diffuse Reflection;406
11.4.1.1.3;Mixed Reflection;407
11.4.1.2;8.4.1.2 Refraction;408
11.4.1.3;8.4.1.3 Scattering;408
11.4.1.4;8.4.1.4 Absorption;408
11.4.1.5;8.4.1.5 Translucence, Opacity;409
11.4.2;8.4.2 Mechanical Properties;409
11.4.2.1;8.4.2.1 Stress and Strain;409
11.4.2.2;8.4.2.2 Brittle Fracture;411
11.4.2.2.1;Fracture Pattern (Annealed Glass);412
11.4.2.2.2;Fracture Pattern (Tempered Glass);412
11.4.3;8.4.3 Thermal Properties: Heat Transmission;413
11.5;8.5 Corrosion;415
11.5.1;8.5.1 Etching;415
11.5.2;8.5.2 Leaching;416
11.6;8.6 Conservation, Durability and Cleaning;418
11.6.1;8.6.1 Condensation;418
11.6.2;8.6.2 Removing Condensation from Inside Windows;418
11.6.3;8.6.3 Handling and Storage;419
11.6.4;8.6.4 Cleaning;419
11.7;8.7 Recycling: Life Cycle;419
11.8;8.8 Glasses Used in Construction and Architecture;420
11.8.1;8.8.1 Ordinary Glass (Clear Float Glass);420
11.8.1.1;How It Is Produced;420
11.8.1.2;Where It Should Be Used;420
11.8.1.3;Recommendations for All Glass Types;421
11.8.2;8.8.2 Decorated Glass;422
11.8.2.1;8.8.2.1 Silkscreen Printed Glass;422
11.8.2.1.1;How It Is Produced;422
11.8.2.1.2;Where It Should Be Used;422
11.8.2.1.3;Specific Recommendations for Silkscreen Printed Glass;422
11.8.2.2;8.8.2.2 Rolled Plate Glass;422
11.8.2.2.1;How It Is Produced;423
11.8.2.2.2;Where It Should Be Used;423
11.8.2.2.3;Specific Recommendations for Rolled Plate Glass;423
11.8.3;8.8.3 Coated Glass;423
11.8.3.1;8.8.3.1 Anti-reflection Glass;423
11.8.3.1.1;Where It Should Be Used;424
11.8.3.2;8.8.3.2 Mirror Glass;424
11.8.3.2.1;Where It Should Be Used;424
11.8.3.3;8.8.3.3 Low-Emission Glass;424
11.8.3.3.1;Where It Should Be Used;425
11.8.3.3.2;Recommendations for Coated Glass;425
11.8.4;8.8.4 Self-Cleaning Glass;425
11.8.4.1;Where It Should Be Used;426
11.8.4.2;Specific Recommendations for Self-Cleaning Glass;426
11.8.5;8.8.5 Safety Glass;427
11.8.5.1;8.8.5.1 Laminated Glass;427
11.8.5.1.1;How It Is Produced;428
11.8.5.1.2;Where It Should Be Used;428
11.8.5.1.3;Properties of Laminated Glass;429
11.8.5.1.4;Specific Recommendations for Laminated Glass;430
11.8.5.2;8.8.5.2 Tempered Glass;433
11.8.5.2.1;How It Is Produced;433
11.8.5.2.2;Where It Should Be Used;434
11.8.5.2.3;Specific Recommendations for Tempered Glass;435
11.8.5.2.4;Curved Tempered Glass;435
11.8.5.2.5;How It Is Produced;435
11.8.5.2.6;Where It Should Be Used;435
11.8.6;8.8.6 Fire-Retarding Glass;436
11.8.7;8.8.7 Double Glazing;436
11.8.7.1;How It Is Produced;436
11.8.7.2;Where It Should Be Used;436
11.8.7.3;Colour;436
11.8.7.4;Argon;437
11.8.7.5;Double Glazing with a Built-In Blind;437
11.8.7.6;Specific Recommendations for Double Glazing;437
11.9;Bibiliography;438
11.9.1;Glass History;438
11.9.2;Glass Structure and Properties;438
11.9.3;Glass Preservation and Maintenance;438
11.9.4;Glass Products and Manufactures;438
11.9.5;Glass recycling;439
11.9.6;Glass Societies and Organizations;439
11.9.7;Glass Technical Publications;439
11.9.8;Glass Project Software;439
12;9: Ornamental Stones;440
12.1;9.1 Introduction;441
12.2;9.2 Stone Material Structure;444
12.2.1;9.2.1 Granite;445
12.2.2;9.2.2 Marble;447
12.2.3;9.2.3 Slate and Other Schists;447
12.3;9.3 Physical-Mechanical Properties: Specifications, Standards and Regulation;449
12.3.1;9.3.1 CE Marking for Natural Stone Products;451
12.3.2;9.3.2 Natural Stone Products Guarantee: Technical Certification;456
12.3.3;9.3.3 Methods for Physical Properties Evaluation;459
12.3.4;9.3.4 Methods for Mechanical Properties Evaluation;461
12.3.5;9.3.5 Methods for Durability Evaluation;461
12.3.6;9.3.6 Representative Physical-Mechanical Properties;464
12.4;9.4 Stone Products and Application;465
12.4.1;9.4.1 Exterior Pavements (Tiles, Slabs, Setts and Kerbs for Floors and Stairs);465
12.4.2;9.4.2 Walls (Exterior and Interior);466
12.4.3;9.4.3 Interior Pavements (Floors and Stairs);466
12.4.4;9.4.4 Slate and Stone Products for Discontinuous Roofing and Cladding;466
12.4.5;9.4.5 Special Products;467
12.4.6;9.4.6 Stone Construction Products Requirements According to Specific Applications;467
12.5;9.5 Stone Fixing Systems;475
12.5.1;9.5.1 Direct Fixing Systems;475
12.5.2;9.5.2 Indirect Fixing Systems;478
12.6;9.6 Conservation, Durability and Maintenance of Stone Construction Products;483
12.7;9.7 Life Cycle;485
12.8;References;487
13;10: Polymers in Building and Construction;489
13.1;10.1 Introduction;489
13.2;10.2 Polymer Structure;491
13.3;10.3 Classes of Polymeric Materials;495
13.4;10.4 Polymers and Construction;499
13.5;10.5 Properties of Selected Polymers;502
13.5.1;10.5.1 Polyethylene;502
13.5.2;10.5.2 Polypropylene;507
13.5.3;10.5.3 Polyvinyl Chloride;510
13.5.4;10.5.4 Polystyrene;511
13.5.5;10.5.5 Polyurethanes;511
13.5.6;10.5.6 Elastomers;512
13.5.6.1;10.5.6.1 Thermoplastic Elastomers;514
13.6;10.6 Polymer Testing;515
13.6.1;10.6.1 Physical Tests;518
13.6.1.1;10.6.1.1 Sample/Specimen Preparation;518
13.6.1.2;10.6.1.2 Mechanical Properties;519
13.6.1.2.1;Elastic Properties;520
13.6.1.2.2;Tear Resistance;520
13.6.1.2.3;Resilience and Toughness;522
13.6.1.2.4;Compressive Strength;522
13.6.1.2.5;Compression and Indentation;523
13.6.1.2.5.1;Hardness;524
13.6.1.2.5.2;Friction resistance;525
13.6.1.2.5.3;Shear Strength;525
13.6.1.2.5.4;Flexural Strength;525
13.6.1.2.5.5;Impact Tests;526
13.6.1.3;10.6.1.3 Endurance Evaluation;526
13.6.1.3.1;Creep Tests;526
13.6.1.3.2;Permanent Deformation;529
13.6.1.3.3;Fatigue Resistance;529
13.6.1.3.4;Abrasion Resistance;530
13.6.1.3.5;Heating by Hysteresis;530
13.6.1.4;10.6.1.4 Properties of Cellular Materials;531
13.6.1.4.1;Apparent Density;531
13.6.1.4.2;Determining Open and Closed Cells Content;531
13.6.1.5;10.6.1.5 Thermal Properties;532
13.6.1.5.1;Thermal Expansion;532
13.6.1.5.2;Thermal Conductivity;532
13.6.1.5.3;Thermal Dimensional Stability;532
13.6.1.5.4;Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis;534
13.6.1.5.5;Semicrystalline Polymers;535
13.6.1.5.6;Elastomers;536
13.6.1.5.7;Thermosetting Polymers;536
13.6.1.5.8;General Properties;537
13.7;10.7 Chemical and Physical-Chemical Tests;538
13.7.1;10.7.1 Accelerated Ageing Tests;538
13.7.2;10.7.2 Stability under Gases and Liquids;538
13.8;Appendix: The Three-Litre House;538
13.9;Bibiliography;540
13.9.1;A: General;540
13.9.2;B: Specialised;540
14;11: Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites;542
14.1;11.1 Introduction;542
14.2;11.2 The Use of FRP Materials Throughout History;544
14.3;11.3 General Properties of FRP Materials;547
14.3.1;11.3.1 Constituent Materials;547
14.3.1.1;11.3.1.1 Fibres;547
14.3.1.2;11.3.1.2 Polymeric Matrices;550
14.3.1.2.1;Resins;550
14.3.1.2.2;Polymerization Agents;552
14.3.1.2.3;Fillers;552
14.3.1.2.4;Additives;552
14.3.2;11.3.2 Philosophy in the Development of FRP Composites;553
14.3.3;11.3.3 Manufacturing Processes;554
14.3.3.1;11.3.3.1 Pultrusion;554
14.3.3.2;11.3.3.2 Hand Layup;556
14.3.3.3;11.3.3.3 Other Processes;556
14.3.4;11.3.4 Field of Application of FRP Materials in Civil Construction;557
14.3.4.1;11.3.4.1 Rebars for Internal Reinforcement of New Structures;557
14.3.4.2;11.3.4.2 Repair and Strengthening of Existing Structures;557
14.3.4.3;11.3.4.3 New Hybrid Structures;559
14.3.4.4;11.3.4.4 All-FRP Structures;559
14.3.5;11.3.5 Durability of FRP Materials;560
14.3.6;11.3.6 Sustainability of FRP Materials;561
14.3.7;11.3.7 Fire Behaviour of FRP Materials;563
14.4;11.4 GFRP Pultruded Profiles;564
14.4.1;11.4.1 Structural Shapes of GFRP Pultruded Profiles;564
14.4.2;11.4.2 Typical Properties of GFRP Pultruded Profiles;567
14.4.3;11.4.3 Advantages and Difficulties in the Use of GFRP Pultruded Profiles;570
14.4.4;11.4.4 Field of Application of GFRP Pultruded Profiles;571
14.4.4.1;11.4.4.1 Examples in New Construction;572
14.4.4.2;11.4.4.2 Examples in Rehabilitation;574
14.4.5;11.4.5 Connections Between GFRP Pultruded Profiles;576
14.4.6;11.4.6 Regulation for GFRP Pultruded Profiles;579
14.5;11.5 FRP Rebars;580
14.5.1;11.5.1 Geometries of FRP Rebars;580
14.5.2;11.5.2 Typical Properties of FRP Rebars;580
14.5.3;11.5.3 Advantages and Difficulties in the Use of FRP Rebars;582
14.5.4;11.5.4 Field of Application of FRP Rebars;583
14.5.5;11.5.5 Application Process of FRP Rebars;584
14.5.6;11.5.6 Regulation for FRP Rebars;584
14.6;11.6 FRP Strengthening Systems;585
14.6.1;11.6.1 Geometries of FRP Strengthening Systems;585
14.6.2;11.6.2 Typical Properties of FRP Strengthening Systems;586
14.6.3;11.6.3 Advantages and Difficulties in the Use of FRP Strengthening Systems;586
14.6.4;11.6.4 Field of Application of FRP Strengthening Systems;588
14.6.5;11.6.5 Application Process of FRP Strengthening Systems;588
14.6.6;11.6.6 Regulation for FRP Strengthening Systems;592
14.7;Sources of Further Information;593
14.7.1;Key Books;593
14.7.2;Series of Proceedings;593
14.7.3;Major Trade/Professional Bodies;593
14.7.4;Research and Interest Groups;594
14.7.5;Websites/Online Videos;594
14.8;References;594
15;12: Wood;598
15.1;12.1 Introduction;599
15.2;12.2 What Is Wood;600
15.2.1;Softwoods and Hardwoods;601
15.2.2;Earlywood and Latewood;601
15.2.3;Sapwood and Heartwood;602
15.2.4;Anisotropy;602
15.2.5;Variability of the Wood;602
15.2.6;Wood Defects;604
15.3;12.3 Hygroscopicity and Moisture Content;605
15.3.1;Wood Moisture and Shrinkage;605
15.3.2;Dimensional Stability and Warp Formation;606
15.3.3;Moisture Content and Equilibrium Moisture Content;607
15.3.4;Precautions for the Use of Wood;609
15.3.5;Specification and Verification of Moisture Content;609
15.4;12.4 Load Carrying Capacity of Wood;610
15.4.1;Factors Influencing Wood Mechanical Properties;610
15.4.2;Mechanical Strength Sorting and Visual Strength Grading;611
15.4.3;Visual Strength Grades and Strength Classes;612
15.4.4;Characteristic Strength Values and Design Strength Values;612
15.5;12.5 Wood Deterioration by Physical and Chemical Agents;612
15.5.1;Weathering;613
15.5.2;Fire;613
15.6;12.6 Wood Deterioration by Biological Agents;614
15.6.1;Fungi;615
15.6.2;Subterranean Termites;616
15.6.3;Insects of Dry Wood;618
15.7;12.7 Conservation and Protection of Wood;620
15.8;12.8 Wood-Based Products and Their Applications;621
15.9;References;623
16;13: Cork;625
16.1;13.1 Introduction;626
16.1.1;What Is Cork?;626
16.1.2;Raw Materials of Cork;626
16.1.3;Manufacturing Cork Products for Civil Construction;628
16.2;13.2 Structure and Composition of Cork;633
16.2.1;Macroscopic Structure of Cork;633
16.2.1.1;Microscopic Structure of Cork;634
16.2.2;Chemical Composition of Cork;635
16.3;13.3 Cork Products and Their Physical and Mechanical Characteristics;636
16.3.1;Agglomerated Cork for Coverings (Floors and Walls);636
16.3.2;Agglomerated Cork for Sound and Thermal Insulation;638
16.3.3;Agglomerated Cork for Vibration Insulation;645
16.3.4;Agglomerated Cork for Expansion Joints;646
16.3.5;Granulated and Regranulated Cork;646
16.3.6;Standardisation for Cork Products for Construction;648
16.3.7;Usage Methods;656
16.3.8;Maintenance and Cleaning;660
16.4;13.4 Cork Products in the Context of Construction Products Directive;662
16.5;13.5 Ecological Aspects Related to Cork Products;663
16.5.1;Reuse and Recycling;663
16.5.2;Ecological Aspects;664
16.6;13.6 Future Cork Products for the Civil Construction Industry;664
16.7;References;666
17;14: Nanomaterials;668
17.1;14.1 Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology;669
17.1.1;14.1.1 Nanotechnology in Art History;672
17.1.2;14.1.2 Nanomaterials in Nature;677
17.2;14.2 General Features of Nanomaterials;685
17.2.1;14.2.1 Size Matters;685
17.2.2;14.2.2 Shape Matters;686
17.2.2.1;14.2.2.1 Spherical Nanoparticles;688
17.2.2.2;14.2.2.2 Polyhedral Nanoparticles;688
17.2.2.3;14.2.2.3 Magic Numbers;690
17.2.2.4;14.2.2.4 Lattice Parameter;693
17.2.3;14.2.3 Physical Chemistry: Few Concepts;694
17.2.3.1;14.2.3.1 Homogeneous Nucleation and Growth;694
17.2.3.2;14.2.3.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation and Growth;695
17.2.3.3;14.2.3.3 Lattice Mismatch or Misfit;697
17.2.3.4;14.2.3.4 Thermodynamic Stability, Instability, and Metastability;698
17.2.4;14.2.4 Motivation to Growth;699
17.2.4.1;14.2.4.1 Ostwald Ripening;699
17.2.4.2;14.2.4.2 Sintering;700
17.2.4.3;14.2.4.3 Surface Relaxation and Restructuring;700
17.2.4.4;14.2.4.4 Oxidation and Passivation;701
17.2.5;14.2.5 Scales Law;701
17.2.5.1;14.2.5.1 Gravitational Force Versus van der Waals Force;701
17.2.5.2;14.2.5.2 Friction Forces;702
17.2.6;14.2.6 Size-Dependent Properties;702
17.2.7;14.2.7 Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches;704
17.3;14.3 Civil Engineering Nanomaterials: Case Studies;706
17.3.1;14.3.1 Traditional Construction Materials Whose Performance Is Increased by the Presence of Nanoparticles;706
17.3.1.1;14.3.1.1 Nanoparticles in Portland Cement;706
17.3.1.2;14.3.1.2 Nanoparticles in Pavement;707
17.3.1.3;14.3.1.3 Hardened Metals with Nanodispersion;707
17.3.1.4;14.3.1.4 Coated Glasses;708
17.3.2;14.3.2 Eco-Active Building Materials (Removing Pollution, Antibacterial, and Self-Cleaning Properties);708
17.3.2.1;14.3.2.1 The Photocatalyst Effect;708
17.3.2.2;14.3.2.2 Self-Cleaning Mortars;709
17.3.2.3;14.3.2.3 Self-Cleaning Glass;709
17.3.2.4;14.3.2.4 Ceramic Surfaces with Self-Cleaning Qualities;710
17.3.2.5;14.3.2.5 Self-Cleaning Steel;710
17.3.2.6;14.3.2.6 Aqueous Coatings with Self-Cleaning Qualities;710
17.3.3;14.3.3 Building Materials with Self-Healing Properties;710
17.3.3.1;14.3.3.1 Self-Healing Methods;710
17.3.3.2;14.3.3.2 Self-Healing Cement;711
17.3.4;14.3.4 Building Materials with Antibacterial Properties;712
17.3.4.1;14.3.4.1 Antibacterial Ceramic;712
17.3.4.2;14.3.4.2 Antibacterial Paints and Coatings;712
17.3.5;14.3.5 Building Materials with Photovoltaic Properties;712
17.4;14.4 Nanotechnology and Toxicity;713
17.5;Conclusions;713
17.6;Introduction to Nanomaterials;714
17.7;Nanotoxicology;714
17.8;Scientific Publications;714
17.9;Products and Supliers;714
17.10;Societies and Organizations;715
17.11;References;715
18;15: Corrosion;717
18.1;15.1 Introduction;718
18.1.1;15.1.1 Definition of Corrosion;718
18.1.2;15.1.2 Importance and Costs of Corrosion;718
18.2;15.2 Corrosion Basics;719
18.2.1;15.2.1 Electrochemical Reactions;720
18.2.2;15.2.2 Anodes and Cathodes in Corrosion Cells;722
18.2.3;15.2.3 Passivity;723
18.2.4;15.2.4 Thermodynamic Stability and Potential-pH Diagrams;724
18.3;15.3 Types of Corrosion;725
18.3.1;15.3.1 Uniform Corrosion;725
18.3.2;15.3.2 Galvanic Corrosion;727
18.3.3;15.3.3 Pitting Corrosion;729
18.3.4;15.3.4 Crevice Corrosion;730
18.3.5;15.3.5 Filiform Corrosion;731
18.3.6;15.3.6 Selective Leaching;731
18.3.7;15.3.7 Intergranular Corrosion;733
18.3.8;15.3.8 Environmentally Induced Cracking;735
18.3.9;15.3.9 Biological Corrosion;738
18.3.10;15.3.10 Polymer Corrosion;738
18.3.11;15.3.11 Corrosion of Stone;739
18.4;15.4 Anticorrosive Protection Methods;740
18.4.1;15.4.1 Materials Selection;740
18.4.2;15.4.2 Design;741
18.4.3;15.4.3 Changing the Corrosive Environment;743
18.4.4;15.4.4 Modifying the System Potential (Cathodic Protection);743
18.4.4.1;15.4.4.1 Cathodic Protection by Sacrificial Anodes;744
18.4.4.2;15.4.4.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection;745
18.4.5;15.4.5 Coatings;746
18.4.5.1;15.4.5.1 Metallic Coatings;746
18.4.5.2;15.4.5.2 Nonmetallic Inorganic Coatings;747
18.4.5.3;15.4.5.3 Organic Coatings;747
18.5;15.5 Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Rebars;748
18.5.1;15.5.1 The Chloride Ion;748
18.5.2;15.5.2 Carbon Dioxide;749
18.5.3;15.5.3 Prevention/Remediation;750
18.5.3.1;15.5.3.1 Monitoring;750
18.5.3.2;15.5.3.2 Prevention Methods;751
18.6;References;753
19;16: Structural Adhesives;755
19.1;16.1 Introduction;756
19.1.1;16.1.1 Fundamental Definitions;758
19.1.2;16.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Adhesives;761
19.1.2.1;16.1.2.1 Advantages;761
19.1.2.2;16.1.2.2 Disadvantages;763
19.2;16.2 Adhesives;765
19.2.1;16.2.1 Classification;765
19.2.1.1;16.2.1.1 Origin;765
19.2.1.2;16.2.1.2 Chemical Composition;765
19.2.1.3;16.2.1.3 Field of Application;769
19.2.1.4;16.2.1.4 Physical Form and Type of Curing/Setting;770
19.2.1.5;16.2.1.5 Substrate and Type of Environment;771
19.2.1.6;16.2.1.6 Durability;771
19.2.1.7;16.2.1.7 Cost;772
19.2.1.8;16.2.1.8 Additional Classifications;772
19.2.2;16.2.2 Characteristics;774
19.3;16.3 Adhesion;777
19.3.1;16.3.1 Definition of the Phenomenon;777
19.3.2;16.3.2 Explanatory Theories;779
19.4;16.4 Bonded Connection;785
19.4.1;16.4.1 Selection of the Bonding System;785
19.4.2;16.4.2 Design of the Bonded Connection;787
19.4.3;16.4.3 Preparation of Surfaces to Be Bonded;788
19.4.4;16.4.4 Fabrication of the Connection;789
19.4.5;16.4.5 Process Control;790
19.5;16.5 Performance and Durability;791
19.6;16.6 Applications;793
19.7;16.7 Future Developments;795
19.8;16.8 Standards, Regulations and Other Useful Bibliography;796
19.8.1;16.8.1 Bonding System Selection;796
19.8.1.1;16.8.1.1 Concrete Structures;796
19.8.1.2;16.8.1.2 Timber Structures;796
19.8.1.3;16.8.1.3 Metal Structures;797
19.8.1.4;16.8.1.4 General Applications;797
19.8.2;16.8.2 Bonded Connection Design;797
19.8.2.1;16.8.2.1 Concrete Structures;797
19.8.2.2;16.8.2.2 Timber Structures;798
19.8.2.3;16.8.2.3 Metal Structures;798
19.8.2.4;16.8.2.4 General Applications;799
19.8.3;16.8.3 Surface Preparation;799
19.8.3.1;16.8.3.1 Bibliographical References;799
19.8.3.2;16.8.3.2 Standards;799
19.8.4;16.8.4 Process Control;800
19.8.4.1;16.8.4.1 Bibliographical References;800
19.8.4.2;16.8.4.2 Standards;800
19.8.5;16.8.5 Performance and Durability;801
19.8.5.1;16.8.5.1 Bibliographical References;801
19.8.5.2;16.8.5.2 Standards;801
19.8.6;16.8.6 Applications;803
19.8.6.1;16.8.6.1 Bibliographical References;803
19.8.6.2;16.8.6.2 Specifications;804
19.9;References;804
20;17: Organic Coatings;810
20.1;17.1 Introduction;810
20.2;17.2 Historical Notes;811
20.3;17.3 Composition;812
20.3.1;17.3.1 The Binder;812
20.3.1.1;17.3.1.1 The Processes of Curing or Drying;813
20.3.1.2;17.3.1.2 Adhesion;814
20.3.2;17.3.2 Volatile Components;816
20.3.3;17.3.3 Pigments;818
20.3.3.1;17.3.3.1 Optical Properties;818
20.3.3.2;17.3.3.2 Shape of the Particles;819
20.3.3.3;17.3.3.3 Dispersibility and Pigment Concentration;820
20.3.3.4;17.3.3.4 Classes of Pigments;821
20.3.4;17.3.4 Additives;822
20.3.5;17.3.5 Classification of Paints;823
20.4;17.4 Paint Degradation;823
20.4.1;17.4.1 Aggressive Agents;823
20.4.1.1;17.4.1.1 Ultraviolet Radiation;823
20.4.1.2;17.4.1.2 Temperature;825
20.4.1.3;17.4.1.3 Humidity and Condensation;825
20.4.1.4;17.4.1.4 Acid Pollutants from the Atmosphere;827
20.4.2;17.4.2 Symptoms and Mechanisms of Degradation;827
20.4.2.1;17.4.2.1 Loss of Gloss;827
20.4.2.2;17.4.2.2 Chalking;828
20.4.2.3;17.4.2.3 Cracking and Loss of Adhesion;828
20.5;17.5 Selection of a Paint System;829
20.5.1;17.5.1 Masonry;829
20.5.2;17.5.2 Wood;830
20.5.2.1;17.5.2.1 Pretreatments and the Role of Primers;831
20.5.2.2;17.5.2.2 Semi-transparent Paints;831
20.5.3;17.5.3 Iron and Ferrous Substrates;832
20.5.4;17.5.4 Zinc and Galvanized Steel;832
20.5.5;17.5.5 Aluminium and Light Alloys;833
20.6;17.6 Recent Trends;833
20.6.1;17.6.1 Silicate Coatings;833
20.6.2;17.6.2 Paints Based on Nanocomposites;834
20.6.3;17.6.3 Self-Cleaning and Photocatalytic Organic Coatings;834
20.7;References;834
21;18: Environmental Impact and Life Cycle Evaluation of Materials;836
21.1;18.1 Introduction;837
21.2;18.2 The Construction Industry;838
21.2.1;18.2.1 The Environmental Impact of the Construction Industry;838
21.2.1.1;18.2.1.1 Natural Resources;838
21.2.1.2;18.2.1.2 Energy;839
21.2.1.3;18.2.1.3 Pollution;840
21.2.1.4;18.2.1.4 Waste;841
21.2.2;18.2.2 Life Cycle Analysis of the Construction Industry;842
21.3;18.3 Integrated Waste Management;845
21.3.1;18.3.1 Introduction to Waste-Related Problems;845
21.3.2;18.3.2 Legislative Framework;847
21.4;18.4 Construction and Demolition Waste;850
21.4.1;18.4.1 Introduction;850
21.4.2;18.4.2 Waste Classification;852
21.4.3;18.4.3 Characterisation of CandDW;852
21.4.4;18.4.4 Ecotoxicological Effects of CandDW;857
21.5;18.5 Recovery of CandDW;858
21.5.1;18.5.1 Introduction;858
21.5.2;18.5.2 Recycling Materials Contained in CandDW;859
21.5.3;18.5.3 CandDW Recycling Plants;861
21.6;18.6 Uses for Recycled Materials;864
21.7;Conclusions;869
21.8;References;870
22;19: LNEC Technical Approval and Construction Products Certification;873
22.1;19.1 Foreword;873
22.2;19.2 Topics About the Construction Products Regulation and the CE Marking;874
22.2.1;19.2.1 Background;874
22.2.2;19.2.2 Construction Products Regulation (CPR) Versus Construction Products Directive (CPD);875
22.3;19.3 LNEC Technical Approvals;883
22.3.1;19.3.1 A History with Around 50 Years;883
22.3.2;19.3.2 Development of a Technical Approval Study;884
22.3.3;19.3.3 Scope of LNEC Technical Approval;885
22.4;19.4 LNEC Application Documents;886
22.5;19.5 The Certification of Construction Products;888
22.6;19.6 Final Note;890
22.7;References;892
23;20: Aggregates;893
23.1;20.1 Aggregate Properties;894
23.1.1;20.1.1 Introduction to Aggregates;894
23.1.2;20.1.2 Properties of Aggregates;901
23.1.3;20.1.3 Aggregate Tests;904
23.2;20.2 Production and Quality Control;906
23.2.1;20.2.1 Natural Aggregates;906
23.2.2;20.2.2 Recycled Aggregates;907
23.2.3;20.2.3 Quality Control and CE Marking;908
23.3;20.3 Applications and Technical Specifications;909
23.3.1;20.3.1 Buildings and Bridges;909
23.3.1.1;20.3.1.1 Scope;909
23.3.1.2;20.3.1.2 Aggregates Classification;910
23.3.1.3;20.3.1.3 Geometrical Requirements;910
23.3.1.4;20.3.1.4 Physical Requirements;915
23.3.1.5;20.3.1.5 Chemical Requirements;917
23.3.2;20.3.2 Infrastructures of Transport;918
23.3.2.1;20.3.2.1 Scope;918
23.3.2.2;20.3.2.2 Unbound Granular Layers for Road and Airport Pavements: General Characteristics;918
23.3.2.3;20.3.2.3 Unbound Granular Layers for Road and Airport Pavements: Most Important Functions;919
23.3.2.4;20.3.2.4 Base and Sub-base Layers for Road and Airport Pavements: Applicable Technical Specifications;921
23.3.2.5;20.3.2.5 Unbound Aggregates for Use in Construction of Railway Track: General Characteristics;923
23.3.2.6;20.3.2.6 Unbound Aggregates for Use in Construction of Railway Track: Most Important Functions;924
23.3.2.7;20.3.2.7 Railway Ballast: Applicable Technical Specifications;925
23.4;Standards;925
23.5;Books/Magazines/Journals;930
23.5.1;Associations/Organisations/Societies;931
23.5.2;Companies;931
23.6;References;931
24;Index;933