Glatzeder / Goel / Müller Towards a Theory of Thinking

Building Blocks for a Conceptual Framework
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-03129-8
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 380 Seiten

Reihe: On Thinking

What is Thinking? – Trying to Define an Equally Fascinating and Elusive Phenomenon Human thinking is probably the most complex phenomenon that evolution has come up with until now. There exists a broad spectrum of definitions, from subs- ing almost all processes of cognition to limiting it to language-based, sometimes even only to formalizable reasoning processes. We work with a “medium sized” definition according to which thinking encompasses all operations by which cog- tive agents link mental content in order to gain new insights or perspectives. Mental content is, thus, a prerequisite for and the substrate on which thinking operations are executed. The largely unconscious acts of perceptual object stabilization, ca- gorization, emotional evaluation – and retrieving all the above from memory inscriptions – are the processes by which mental content is generated, and are, therefore, seen as prerequisites for thinking operations. In terms of a differentia specifica, the notion of “thinking” is seen as narrower than the notion of “cognition” and as wider than the notion of “reasoning”. Thinking is, thus, seen as a subset of cognition processes; and reasoning processes are seen as a subset of thinking. Besides reasoning, the notion of thinking includes also nonexplicit, intuitive, and associative processes of linking mental content. According to this definition, thinking is not dependant on language, i. e. also many animals and certainly all mammals show early forms of thinking.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Glatzeder, Britt

Goel, Vinod

Müller, Albrecht

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;0001085370.pdf;1
1.1;Anchor 1;5
1.2;Towards a Theory of Thinking;8
1.2.1;Structure of the Book;10
1.2.2;Part I: Perspectives on Thinking;10
1.2.3;Part II: Components of Thinking;11
1.2.4;Part III: Onto- and Phylogenetic Aspects;13
1.2.5;Part IV: Language, Emotion, Culture;15
1.2.6;Part V: Modeling and Neurobiological Approaches;17
2;0001087460.pdf;26
2.1;Chapter 1;1
3;0001085342.pdf;27
3.1;Problem Solving;27
3.1.1;1 Introduction;28
3.1.2;2 The Gestaltist Perspective;28
3.1.3;3 Information Processing Theory and the Problem Space Hypothesis;33
3.1.4;4 Challenge: Well-Structured Versus Ill-Structured Problems;36
3.1.5;5 Challenge: Insight Problem Solving;39
3.1.5.1;5.1 Definition of Insight;39
3.1.5.2;5.2 Nothing Special Account;40
3.1.5.3;5.3 Representational Change;41
3.1.5.4;5.4 An Integrative Perspective;42
3.1.6;6 Closing Remarks;43
3.1.7;References;43
4;0001085343.pdf;46
4.1;Heuristic Bias, Conflict, and Rationality in Decision-Making;46
4.1.1;1 Introduction;46
4.1.2;2 Conflict Detection Studies;48
4.1.2.1;2.1 To Detect or Not to Detect?;48
4.1.2.2;2.2 To the Brain and Beyond;51
4.1.2.3;2.3 The Effortless Nature of Conflict Detection;52
4.1.3;3 Implications for the Rationality Debate;53
4.1.4;4 Caveats and Conclusion;54
4.1.5;References;55
5;0001085344.pdf;57
5.1;Analogical Processes in Human Thinking and Learning;57
5.1.1;1 Introduction;57
5.1.2;2 Analogical Processes;58
5.1.2.1;2.1 Mapping;58
5.1.2.2;2.2 Structural Alignment in Similarity and Analogy;60
5.1.2.3;2.3 Systematicity;62
5.1.2.4;2.4 Evaluation;63
5.1.3;3 Learning;63
5.1.3.1;3.1 Schema Abstraction;64
5.1.3.2;3.2 Re-representation;65
5.1.4;4 Analogical Retrieval;66
5.1.5;5 Concluding Remarks;68
5.1.6;References;68
6;0001085345.pdf;71
6.1;A Gestalt Perspective on the Psychology of Thinking;71
6.1.1;1 Introduction;71
6.1.2;2 Some Basic Concepts in Gestalt Theory;72
6.1.3;3 Some Historical Background on Gestalt Theory;74
6.1.4;4 The Gestalt Approach to Thinking;75
6.1.5;5 Concluding Thoughts on the Gestalt Approach to Thinking;78
6.1.6;References;79
7;0001085346.pdf;81
7.1;Thought and Reality;81
7.1.1;1 Introduction;81
7.1.2;2 A Brief Summary of a Novel Account of Time and Reality;83
7.1.3;3 Human Thinking as an Adaptation to a Janus-Headed Reality;86
7.1.4;References;92
8;0001087251.pdf;93
9;0001085347.pdf;94
9.1;Categorization and Object Shape;94
9.1.1;1 Introduction;94
9.1.2;2 Form and Space;97
9.1.3;3 Recognition and Categorization Performance Depend on Spatial Transformations;104
9.1.4;4 Integrative Transformational Framework of Recognition and Categorization;110
9.1.5;5 Open Questions and Outlook;113
9.1.6;References;115
10;0001085348.pdf;123
10.1;Comparison;123
10.1.1;1 Introduction;123
10.1.2;2 Models of Similarity;125
10.1.2.1;2.1 Geometric Models and Multidimensional Scaling;126
10.1.2.2;2.2 Featural Models;128
10.1.2.3;2.3 Similarities Between Geometric and Feature-Based Models;130
10.1.2.4;2.4 Alignment-Based Models;132
10.1.2.5;2.5 Transformational Models;135
10.1.3;3 Conclusions;136
10.1.4;References;137
11;0001085349.pdf;142
11.1;Causal Thinking;142
11.1.1;1 Introduction;142
11.1.2;2 Causal-Model Theory: Beyond Covariations;143
11.1.2.1;2.1 Sensitivity to the Asymmetry of Causes and Effects;144
11.1.2.2;2.2 Predicting Outcomes of Hypothetical Observations Versus Hypothetical Interventions;146
11.1.2.2.1;2.2.1 Causal Reasoning in Nonhuman Animals;148
11.1.2.3;2.3 Estimating Causal Parameters;149
11.1.2.4;2.4 Limitations of Causal Reasoning;150
11.1.3;3 Inducing Causal Structures;150
11.1.4;4 Conclusion;151
11.1.5;References;152
12;0001085350.pdf;154
12.1;Conditionals: Their Meaning and Their use in Reasoning;154
12.1.1;1 Introduction;154
12.1.2;2 The Meaning of Conditionals;155
12.1.2.1;2.1 Mental Models;155
12.1.2.2;2.2 The Evidence;158
12.1.3;3 Inferences from Conditionals;159
12.1.3.1;3.1 Mental Models;160
12.1.3.2;3.2 The Probabilistic View;161
12.1.3.3;3.3 The Evidence: Reasoning from Conditionals;163
12.1.3.3.1;3.3.1 Patterns of Inference Endorsement;163
12.1.3.3.2;3.3.2 Content Effects;164
12.1.4;4 Conclusion;164
12.1.5;References;164
13;0001085351.pdf;166
13.1;Thinking and Memory;166
13.1.1;1 Introduction;166
13.1.2;2 Definitions and Classifications of Memory;167
13.1.3;3 Brain Structures Involved in Episodic Memory: A Brief Summary;170
13.1.4;4 The Association Between Thinking and Memory in Brain Damaged Patients;173
13.1.5;5 The Association Between Thinking and Memory in Neuroimaging Investigations;174
13.1.6;6 General Considerations;175
13.1.7;References;176
14;0001085352.pdf;180
14.1;Perception and the Brain;180
14.1.1;1 Introduction;181
14.1.2;2 Binocular Rivalry Experiments;181
14.1.3;3 Extracellular Recording in the Visual Cortex;183
14.1.4;4 Rivalry Related Tasks;190
14.1.5;5 Things We Learn and Things We Do Not Learn;191
14.1.6;6 Conclusion;193
14.1.7;References;194
15;0001087248.pdf;195
16;0001085353.pdf;196
16.1;A Developmental Perspective on Modularity;196
16.1.1;1 Introduction;196
16.1.2;2 Modularity, Evolution and Development;197
16.1.3;3 Gradual Developmental Process of Modularisation;198
16.1.4;4 A Concrete Example of Progressive Modularisation: Face Processing in Typically and Atypically Developing Populations;200
16.1.5;5 Concluding Thoughts;201
16.1.6;References;202
17;0001085354.pdf;205
17.1;Theory of Mind;205
17.1.1;1 Introduction;205
17.1.2;2 Development of a Theory of Mind;206
17.1.3;3 Theories;208
17.1.4;4 Neural Correlates;209
17.1.5;5 Theory of Mind and Language;210
17.1.6;6 Theory of Mind in Other Species and Robots;211
17.1.7;References;213
18;0001085355.pdf;218
18.1;The Development of Metacognitive Competencies;218
18.1.1;1 Introduction;218
18.1.2;2 Classic Research on the Development of Metamemory;220
18.1.2.1;2.1 Declarative Metamemory;220
18.1.2.2;2.2 Procedural Metamemory;220
18.1.2.3;2.3 Metamemory–Memory Relations;221
18.1.3;3 Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and “Theory of Mind”;221
18.1.3.1;3.1 Assessment of Children’s “Theory-of-Mind”;222
18.1.3.2;3.2 Links Between Theory of Mind and Metacognitive Knowledge;222
18.1.4;4 New Evidence Concerning Metacognitive Development in Childhood and Adolescence;223
18.1.4.1;4.1 The Development of Self-Monitoring and Self-Control;224
18.1.4.2;4.2 Monitoring Skills in Children;224
18.1.4.3;4.3 The Relation Between Monitoring and Control Processes in Children;225
18.1.5;5 The Importance of Metacognition for Education;226
18.1.6;References;227
19;0001085356.pdf;230
19.1;Understanding Apes to Understand Humans: The Case of Object–Object Relations;230
19.1.1;1 Introduction;230
19.1.2;2 Why Study Animal Cognition?;231
19.1.3;3 Comparing Human and Animal Cognition;232
19.1.4;4 Object–Object Relations and Causal Knowledge;234
19.1.4.1;4.1 Inferential Reasoning;234
19.1.4.2;4.2 Two Additional Domains: Weight and Support;236
19.1.4.3;4.3 Tool-Use;238
19.1.5;5 The Nature of Causal and Arbitrary Relations;240
19.1.5.1;5.1 On the Epigenesis of Causal Relations;241
19.1.6;6 Conclusion and Future Directions;243
19.1.7;References;243
20;0001087249.pdf;246
21;0001085357.pdf;247
21.1;Socializing Cognition;247
21.1.1;1 Distributing Cognition Across People and the World;248
21.1.1.1;1.1 Distributed Representations;248
21.1.1.2;1.2 Coupled Systems;249
21.1.2;2 Emerging Cognition: Social Brains and Social Norms;251
21.1.2.1;2.1 Evolutionary Approaches;251
21.1.2.2;2.2 Cultural Approaches;252
21.1.3;3 Aligning Cognition: Joint Control of Perception–Action Links;253
21.1.3.1;3.1 Ideomotor Theories and the Mirror System;253
21.1.3.1.1;3.1.1 Mimicry;254
21.1.3.1.2;3.1.2 Imitation;255
21.1.3.2;3.2 Joint Action;256
21.1.3.2.1;3.2.1 Co-representation;256
21.1.3.2.2;3.2.2 Coordination;257
21.1.4;4 Conclusion and Outlook;258
21.1.5;References;260
22;0001085358.pdf;265
22.1;Thinking and Language;265
22.1.1;1 Semiotic Bridges;265
22.1.2;2 Levels of Language Structure;267
22.1.3;3 Five Logophonic Pillars;268
22.1.4;4 Language and Culture;272
22.1.5;References;273
23;0001085359.pdf;274
23.1;Thinking and Emotion: Affective Modulation of Cognitive Processing Modes;274
23.1.1;1 Introduction;275
23.1.2;2 Antagonistic Adaptive Functions and Complementary Modes of Thinking;276
23.1.3;3 Theoretical Views on the Affective Modulation of Cognitive Processes;277
23.1.4;4 Selective Review of Evidence for the Affective Modulation of Complementary Modes of Thinking;278
23.1.4.1;4.1 Affective Modulation of Creative Problem Solving and Generative Thought;279
23.1.4.2;4.2 Affective Modulation of Semantic Associations;280
23.1.4.3;4.3 Affective Modulation of the Scope of Selective Attention;282
23.1.4.4;4.4 Affective Modulation of Cognitive Control;283
23.1.5;5 Conclusions and Open Questions;285
23.1.6;References;287
24;0001085360.pdf;291
24.1;Cultural Differences in Thinking Styles;291
24.1.1;1 Introduction;291
24.1.2;2 Cultural Differences in Perceptual and Attentional Processing;292
24.1.3;3 Neural Basis of Cultural Specific Cognitive Styles;296
24.1.4;4 Conclusion;299
24.1.5;References;300
25;0001087250.pdf;301
26;0001085361.pdf;302
26.1;Natural Selection in the Brain;302
26.1.1;1 Introduction;303
26.1.2;2 How Could Neuronal Natural Selection Work?;306
26.1.2.1;2.1 Synapses;307
26.1.2.2;2.2 Groups of Synapses;310
26.1.2.3;2.3 Patterns of Bistable Neuronal Activity;314
26.1.3;3 Natural Selection in Comparison with Other (Neuronal) Stochastic Search Algorithms;317
26.1.3.1;3.1 Neuronal Selectionism;317
26.1.3.2;3.2 Reinforcement Learning Algorithms;320
26.1.3.3;3.3 Other Action Selection Approaches;321
26.1.4;4 How is an Initial Population of Neuronal Representations Chosen?;322
26.1.5;5 On What Basis Are Neuronal Replicators Selected?;322
26.1.6;6 How Can Variability Be Structured?;323
26.1.7;7 Cognitive Roles for Neuronal Replicators;325
26.1.7.1;7.1 Causal Inference by Topology Copying;325
26.1.7.2;7.2 Heuristic Search in Insight Problems and Working Memory Tasks;326
26.1.7.3;7.3 Memory Consolidation;327
26.1.8;8 Conclusions;328
26.1.9;Acknowledgement;328
26.1.10;References;328
27;0001085362.pdf;334
27.1;Value and Self-Referential Control: Necessary Ingredients for the Autonomous Development of Flexible Intelligence;334
27.1.1;1 Introduction;334
27.1.2;2 Value and Self-Referential Control;336
27.1.2.1;2.1 Elements of Innate Knowledge;337
27.1.2.2;2.2 Self-Organization of Acquired Knowledge;339
27.1.2.3;2.3 Active Exploration, Expectation and Surprise;341
27.1.2.4;2.4 Self-Referential Control;342
27.1.3;3 Conclusions;343
27.1.4;References;344
28;0001085363.pdf;347
28.1;Cortical Connectivity: The Infrastructure of Thoughts;347
28.1.1;1 Thinking: The Associational Nature of Thinking;347
28.1.2;2 Neuronal Assemblies: An Operational Definition;348
28.1.3;3 Cortico–Cortical Connections: Axonal Geometries; Elementary Axonal Computations; Development;349
28.1.4;4 Physiological Analysis of a Visual, Bihemispheric Neuronal Assembly: The Role of Axonal Geometries;350
28.1.5;5 Implications of Principles of Brain Organization for Thinking: Cortico–Cortical Connections May Constrain and Channel Bot;352
28.1.6;References;354
29;0001085364.pdf;357
29.1;Models as Tools to Aid Thinking;357
29.1.1;1 Introduction;357
29.1.2;2 Models and Thinking Economy: What Models Can Do for Us;358
29.1.3;3 Major Dimensions of Modeling;360
29.1.4;4 Modeling and Feature Selection;361
29.1.4.1;4.1 The Power of Mappings;362
29.1.4.2;4.2 Linear Versus Nonlinear Models;364
29.1.5;5 Beyond Mappings: Dynamical Systems;366
29.1.6;6 Some Examples of Dynamical systems;368
29.1.7;7 From Deterministic to Stochastic Models;371
29.1.8;8 Coping with Uncertainty;372
29.1.9;9 Optimal Inference;373
29.1.10;10 From Modeling to Bayesian Learning;375
29.1.11;11 Maximum Likelihood Principle;376
29.1.12;12 Learning, Optimization and Risk Minimization;377
29.1.13;13 Bias, Complexity, and Generalization;378
29.1.14;14 Limits of Modeling;380
29.1.15;15 Concluding Remarks;382
29.1.16;References;383