Florentine / Popper / Fay Loudness

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-1-4419-6712-1
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 37, 290 Seiten

Reihe: Springer Handbook of Auditory Research

Loudness is the primary psychological correlate of intensity. When the intensity of a sound increases, loudness increases. However, there exists no simple one-to-one correspondence between loudness and intensity; loudness can be changed by modifying the frequency or the duration of the sound, or by adding background sounds. Loudness also changes with the listener’s cognitive state.  provides a basic reference for graduate students, consultants, clinicians, and researchers with a focus on recent discoveries. The book begins with an overview of the conceptual thinking related to the study of loudness, addresses issues related to its measurement, and later discusses the physiological effects of loud sounds, reaction times and electrophysiological measures that correlate with loudness. Loudness in the laboratory, loudness of steady-state sounds and the loudness of time-varying sounds are also covered, as are hearing loss and models. 

Autoren/Hrsg.

Florentine, Mary

Popper, Arthur N.

Fay, Richard R.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Series Preface;8
2;Volume Preface;10
3;Contents;12
4;Contributors;14
5;Chapter 1: Loudness;16
5.1;1.1 Why Learn About Loudness?;16
5.2;1.2 Definition and Meaning of Loudness;18
5.3;1.3 Loudness, Language, and Culture;22
5.4;1.4 Current State of Knowledge Regarding Loudness;24
5.5;References;28
6;Chapter 2: Measurement of Loudness, Part I: Methods, Problems, and Pitfalls;31
6.1;2.1 Introduction;31
6.2;2.2 A Brief History of Loudness Measurement;32
6.2.1;2.2.1 Measurement of Loudness: Recognizing the Psychophysical Problem;33
6.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 Fechner’s Law and Fechnerian Measurement;34
6.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Fechnerian Loudness and the Principle of Equality;37
6.2.2;2.2.2 Early Attempts to Measure Loudness in the Twentieth Century;39
6.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 Fechner’s Law and the Use of Decibels to Measure Loudness;39
6.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 Measuring Loudness from Response Times: Piéron’s Law;40
6.2.2.3;2.2.2.3 Measuring Loudness by Additivity: Fletcher and Munson’s Loudness Scale;41
6.2.2.4;2.2.2.4 Measuring Loudness by Judging Ratios: The Original Sone Scale;42
6.2.3;2.2.3 Sone Scale of Loudness and Stevens’s Law;43
6.3;2.3 Contemporary Approaches to Measuring Loudness;45
6.3.1;2.3.1 Equal Loudness Matching;46
6.3.1.1;2.3.1.1 Measuring Equal Loudness with the Method of Adjustment;47
6.3.1.2;2.3.1.2 Measuring Equal Loudness with Adaptive Methods;47
6.3.2;2.3.2 Loudness Scaling;50
6.3.2.1;2.3.2.1 Category Scales;52
6.3.2.2;2.3.2.2 Magnitude Estimation Scales of Loudness;56
6.3.2.3;2.3.2.3 Magnitude Production and Cross-Modality Matching;59
6.3.2.4;2.3.2.4 Magnitude Estimation, Magnitude Production, Cross-Modality Matching, and the Principle of Equality;60
6.3.3;2.3.3 Measuring Loudness of Long-Duration Sounds;62
6.4;2.4 Evaluative Summary;62
6.5;References;64
7;Chapter 3: Measurement of Loudness, Part II: Context Effects;71
7.1;3.1 Introduction;71
7.2;3.2 Hypothetical Stages in Processing Auditory Intensity;73
7.3;3.3 Effects of Stimulus Distribution;74
7.3.1;3.3.1 Effects of Stimulus Distribution I: Changing Stimulus Range;74
7.3.2;3.3.2 Effects of Stimulus Distribution II: Changing Mean Intensity Level;76
7.3.3;3.3.3 Effects of Stimulus Distribution III: Changing Presentation Frequency and Stimulus Spacing;78
7.3.4;3.3.4 Durlach and Braida’s Theory of Intensity Perception;83
7.4;3.4 Differential Context Effects;83
7.5;3.5 Induced Loudness Reduction;87
7.5.1;3.5.1 Relation to Other Sequential Effects in Loudness;88
7.5.2;3.5.2 Possible Mechanisms of ILR;89
7.5.3;3.5.3 Induced Loudness Reduction and Loudness Enhancement;90
7.5.4;3.5.4 Induced Loudness Reduction and Differential Context Effects: Mediated by the Same Mechanism?;91
7.6;3.6 Assimilation Effects and Contrast Effects;93
7.7;3.7 Cross-Modal Context Effects;94
7.8;3.8 Summary;97
7.9;References;98
8;Chapter 4: Correlates of Loudness;102
8.1;4.1 Introduction;102
8.2;4.2 The Physiological Effects of Loud Sounds;102
8.2.1;4.2.1 Nonauditory Effects;102
8.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 Acoustic Startle Reflex;102
8.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 Short-Term Psychophysical Effects of Loud Sounds;103
8.2.1.3;4.2.1.3 Long-Term Psychophysical Effects of Loud Sounds;103
8.2.1.4;4.2.1.4 Cognitive Effects of Loud Sounds;104
8.2.1.5;4.2.1.5 Sleep Disruption;104
8.2.2;4.2.2 Auditory Effects;105
8.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 Temporary Effects;105
8.2.2.1.1;Acoustic Reflex;105
8.2.2.1.2;Temporary Loudness Shift;106
8.2.2.1.3;Adaptation;108
8.2.2.1.4;Induced Loudness Reduction;108
8.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 Permanent Hearing Loss;108
8.2.2.2.1;Cochlear Damage;108
8.2.2.2.2;Neuronal Loss or Reorganization;109
8.2.2.2.3;Hearing Loss;109
8.2.2.2.4;Tinnitus;109
8.3;4.3 Laboratory Uses of Correlates of Loudness;111
8.3.1;4.3.1 Perceptual Correlates;111
8.3.1.1;4.3.1.1 Loudness Measurements;111
8.3.1.2;4.3.1.2 Reaction Time;111
8.3.2;4.3.2 Physiological Correlates;112
8.3.2.1;4.3.2.1 Otoacoustic Emissions;112
8.3.2.2;4.3.2.2 Auditory Brainstem Response and Auditory Steady-State Response;113
8.3.2.3;4.3.2.3 Basilar-Membrane Velocity;113
8.3.2.4;4.3.2.4 Loudness Coding in Neurons;113
8.3.2.5;4.3.2.5 Brain Scans;115
8.3.2.6;4.3.2.6 Direct Electrical Measurements and Stimulation;115
8.4;4.4 Summary;116
8.5;References;116
9;Chapter 5: Loudness in the Laboratory, Part I: Steady-State Sounds;121
9.1;5.1 Introduction;121
9.2;5.2 Loudness as a Function of Intensity;122
9.2.1;5.2.1 The Loudness Function;122
9.2.2;5.2.2 Variability in the Exponent;124
9.2.3;5.2.3 Loudness near Threshold;125
9.2.4;5.2.4 Loudness at High Levels;128
9.2.5;5.2.5 Loudness as a Reflection of Compressive Nonlinearity;128
9.3;5.3 Loudness as a Function of Frequency;130
9.3.1;5.3.1 Loudness Contours;130
9.3.2;5.3.2 Loudness Functions at Low and High Frequencies;133
9.4;5.4 Loudness as a Function of Duration;134
9.5;5.5 Loudness as a Function of Bandwidth;137
9.5.1;5.5.1 Measures of the Critical Band;137
9.5.2;5.5.2 Contributions of Individual Components to Total Loudness;139
9.5.3;5.5.3 Effect of Overall Level;141
9.6;5.6 Partial Masking of Loudness;143
9.7;5.7 Loudness as a Function of Age;147
9.7.1;5.7.1 Loudness During Infancy and Childhood;147
9.7.2;5.7.2 Loudness and the Aging Auditory System;149
9.8;5.8 Summary;150
9.9;References;152
10;Chapter 6: Loudness in the Laboratory, Part II: Non-Steady-State Sounds;157
10.1;6.1 Introduction;157
10.2;6.2 Classification of Time-Varying Sounds;159
10.2.1;6.2.1 Classification in ISO 2204;159
10.2.2;6.2.2 Problems in the Classification of Non-Steady-State Sounds;159
10.2.3;6.2.3 Classification of Non-Steady-State Soundson the Basis of Hearing;162
10.3;6.3 Loudness of Regular Time-Varying Sounds;162
10.3.1;6.3.1 Modulation Frequency and Loudness;162
10.3.2;6.3.2 The Effect of Rise Time of a Sound on Loudness;163
10.3.3;6.3.3 The Effect of Temporal Position of an Intensity Increment of a Sound on Loudness;166
10.4;6.4 Loudness of Irregular Time-Varying Sounds;169
10.5;6.5 Evaluation of Non-Steady-State Sound and Duration;170
10.6;6.6 Continuous Judgments of Loudness Along a Temporal Stream;173
10.6.1;6.6.1 The Method of Continuous Judgment by Category;173
10.6.2;6.6.2 Estimation of Psychological Present;174
10.6.3;6.6.3 Relation Between Overall Judgment and Instantaneous Judgment;175
10.7;6.7 Application of Laboratory Experiments and Field Studies;176
10.8;6.8 Summary;177
10.9;References;177
11;Chapter 7: Binaural Loudness;181
11.1;7.1 Introduction;181
11.2;7.2 Measuring Binaural Loudness;182
11.2.1;7.2.1 Intramodal Matching;182
11.2.2;7.2.2 Psychophysical Scaling;183
11.2.3;7.2.3 Axiomatic Measurement and Nonmetric Scaling;186
11.3;7.3 Headphone Investigations;187
11.3.1;7.3.1 Outcome of Matching Studies: Binaural Gain;188
11.3.2;7.3.2 Outcome of Scaling Studies;189
11.3.3;7.3.3 Stimulus Variables Affecting Binaural Summation;190
11.4;7.4 Loudness of Sound Fields;192
11.4.1;7.4.1 Free Field;193
11.4.2;7.4.2 Diffuse Field;194
11.4.3;7.4.3 Directional Sound Fields;196
11.4.4;7.4.4 Distance and Loudness Constancy;199
11.4.5;7.4.5 Headphone vs. Loudspeaker Presentation;201
11.5;7.5 Applications;203
11.6;7.6 Summary;205
11.7;References;206
12;Chapter 8: Loudness in Daily Environments;210
12.1;8.1 Introduction;210
12.2;8.2 Loudness and Annoyance;211
12.2.1;8.2.1 Annoyance;211
12.2.2;8.2.2 Impact of the Meaning of a Sound Source on Annoyance and Loudness;211
12.2.3;8.2.3 Complex Nature of Acceptable Loudness Levels in Communities;213
12.3;8.3 Loudness and Music;214
12.3.1;8.3.1 Music Can Be Loud and Not Annoying;214
12.3.2;8.3.2 Loud Music and Hearing Loss;215
12.3.3;8.3.3 Language of Loudness for Music (Musical Notation);216
12.3.4;8.3.4 Increasing Loudness Without Increasing Level;217
12.3.5;8.3.5 Loudness Rating for Different Types/Styles of Music;218
12.4;8.4 Multisensory Interactions in Ratings of Loudness;219
12.4.1;8.4.1 Audio–Visual Interactions;219
12.4.2;8.4.2 Influence of Color on Loudness;220
12.4.3;8.4.3 Audio–Tactile Interactions and Loudness;221
12.5;8.5 Cognitive Effects in Loudness Ratings;222
12.5.1;8.5.1 Complex Influences of Context on Loudness;222
12.5.2;8.5.2 Loudness and Distance, Loudness Constancy, and Binaural Loudness Constancy;223
12.6;8.6 Optimal Loudness for Groups of People in Various Environments;224
12.6.1;8.6.1 Optimal Loudness for Music Halls;224
12.6.2;8.6.2 Optimal Loudness in Background Noise;225
12.6.3;8.6.3 Sound-Level Meters vs. Sonemeters;226
12.6.4;8.6.4 Estimating Loudness for Groups of People;227
12.7;8.7 Summary;228
12.8;References;228
13;Chapter 9: Loudness and Hearing Loss;233
13.1;9.1 Introduction;233
13.2;9.2 Formation of Loudness: Normal and Impaired Hearing;235
13.2.1;9.2.1 Peripheral Sound Transformations;236
13.2.1.1;9.2.1.1 External and Middle Ear Transformations;236
13.2.1.2;9.2.1.2 Cochlear Frequency Analysis;237
13.2.1.3;9.2.1.3 Cochlear Compression;237
13.2.1.4;9.2.1.4 Inner Hair Cell Transduction and Neural Spike Generation;239
13.2.1.5;9.2.1.5 Auditory Nerve Spike Transmission;240
13.2.1.6;9.2.1.6 Physiological Interpretation of Altered Loudness Perception;241
13.2.2;9.2.2 From Auditory Nerve Impulse Patterns to Perceived Loudness;242
13.2.2.1;9.2.2.1 Loudness Summation Across Auditory Neurons;243
13.2.2.2;9.2.2.2 Temporal Integration of Loudness;243
13.2.2.3;9.2.2.3 Binaural Loudness Summation;243
13.2.2.4;9.2.2.4 Loudness near the Hearing Threshold;244
13.2.3;9.2.3 Tinnitus;245
13.2.4;9.2.4 Hyperacusis;246
13.3;9.3 Exploring the Auditory Dynamic Range;246
13.3.1;9.3.1 Psychoacoustic Measurements;247
13.3.1.1;9.3.1.1 Threshold, Most Comfortable Loudness Level, and Uncomfortable Loudness Level;247
13.3.1.2;9.3.1.2 Loudness Scaling;247
13.3.1.3;9.3.1.3 Loudness Balancing;247
13.3.1.4;9.3.1.4 Measurements for the Pediatric Population;249
13.3.2;9.3.2 Otoacoustic Emissions;249
13.3.3;9.3.3 Electrophysiological Measurements;250
13.3.4;9.3.4 Impedance Measurements;250
13.3.5;9.3.5 Model-Based Prediction of Loudness;250
13.4;9.4 Loudness and Hearing-Aid Fitting;251
13.4.1;9.4.1 Loudness-Based Hearing-Aid Fitting Principles;251
13.4.1.1;9.4.1.1 Rationales for Prescribing Hearing-Aid Gain;251
13.4.1.2;9.4.1.2 Model-Based or Measurement-Based Prescriptions;252
13.4.2;9.4.2 Prescribed and Preferred Loudness;253
13.4.2.1;9.4.2.1 Prescribed and Preferred Loudness: Linear Hearing Aids;254
13.4.2.2;9.4.2.2 Prescribed and Preferred Loudness: Nonlinear Hearing Aids;255
13.4.2.3;9.4.2.3 Hearing-Aid Experience as a Predictor of Preferred Loudness;257
13.4.2.4;9.4.2.4 Fast Loudness-Restoring Hearing Aid Compression;258
13.4.3;9.4.3 Binaural Loudness and Hearing-Aid Fitting;258
13.4.4;9.4.4 Conductive and Mixed Hearing Losses;259
13.5;9.5 Loudness and Cochlear Implants;259
13.5.1;9.5.1 Exploring the Dynamic Range in Cochlear Implant Fitting;260
13.5.2;9.5.2 Loudness Considerations in Cochlear Implant Fittings;260
13.6;9.6 Summary;261
13.7;References;262
14;Chapter 10: Models of Loudness;270
14.1;10.1 Introduction;270
14.1.1;10.1.1 What Is a Model?;270
14.1.1.1;10.1.1.1 Describe;270
14.1.1.2;10.1.1.2 Predict;271
14.1.1.3;10.1.1.3 Test Hypotheses;271
14.2;10.2 Modeling the Loudness of a Pure Tone;271
14.2.1;10.2.1 The Logarithm Model;272
14.2.2;10.2.2 The Power Function Model;273
14.2.3;10.2.3 InEx Function Model;275
14.3;10.3 Loudness of Complex Sounds;276
14.3.1;10.3.1 Loudness as Estimated by Level Meters in dB(A, B, C,…);277
14.3.2;10.3.2 Zwicker’s Model;277
14.3.2.1;10.3.2.1 Stage I: From Signal to Level of Excitation;278
14.3.2.2;10.3.2.2 Stage II: From Excitation Pattern to Specific Loudness;280
14.3.2.3;10.3.2.3 Stage III: From Specific Loudness to Overall Loudness;281
14.3.3;10.3.3 Moore and Glasberg’s Model;281
14.3.3.1;10.3.3.1 Stage I. Transmission Through the Outer Ear;283
14.3.3.2;10.3.3.2 Stage II. Transmission Through the Middle Ear;283
14.3.3.3;10.3.3.3 Stage III. Transformation of the Spectrum to Excitation Pattern;283
14.3.3.4;10.3.3.4 Stage IV. Transformation of Excitation Pattern to Specific Loudness;284
14.3.3.5;10.3.3.5 Stage V. Transformation from Specific Loudness to Overall Loudness;285
14.4;10.4 Loudness Models for Temporally Varying Sounds;285
14.4.1;10.4.1 Time Constants and Sound Level Meters;285
14.4.2;10.4.2 Zwicker’s Model for Nonstationary Sounds;285
14.4.3;10.4.3 The Model of Moore and Glasberg for Nonstationary Sounds;286
14.4.3.1;10.4.3.1 Instantaneous Loudness;286
14.4.3.2;10.4.3.2 Short-Term Loudness;287
14.4.3.3;10.4.3.3 Loudness Models for Long-Duration Sounds;288
14.5;10.5 Loudness Models Applied to Hearing-Impaired Listeners;288
14.5.1;10.5.1 Modeling the Loudness of Pure Tones for Hearing-Impaired Listeners;288
14.5.1.1;10.5.1.1 Rapid Growth Model;289
14.5.1.2;10.5.1.2 Softness Imperception Model;289
14.5.2;10.5.2 Zwicker’s Loudness Model Applied to Noise-Induced Hearing Loss;290
14.5.2.1;10.5.2.1 Modification by Florentine and Zwicker;290
14.5.2.2;10.5.2.2 Modification by Chalupper and Fastl;291
14.5.2.3;10.5.2.3 Modification by Launer;291
14.5.3;10.5.3 The Loudness Model of Moore and Glasberg Applied to Noise-Induced Hearing Loss;291
14.6;10.6 Summary;292
14.7;References;293
15;Index;294