Ebnesajjad / Landrock Adhesives Technology Handbook

3. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-323-35602-2
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 432 Seiten

Reihe: Plastics Design Library

Covering a wide range of industrial applications across sectors including medical applications, automotive/aerospace, packaging, electronics, and consumer goods, this book provides a complete guide to the selection of adhesives, methods of use, industrial applications, and the fundamentals of adhesion. Dr Ebnesajjad examines the selection of adhesives and adhesion methods and challenges for all major groups of substrate including plastics (thermosets and thermoplastics), elastomers, metals, ceramics and composite materials. His practical guidance covers joint design and durability, application methods, test methods and troubleshooting techniques. The science and technology of adhesion, and the principles of adhesive bonding are explained in a way that enhances the reader's understanding of the fundamentals that underpin the successful use and design of adhesives. The third edition has been updated throughout to include recent developments in the industry, with new sections covering technological advances such as nanotechnology, micro adhesion systems, and the replacement of toxic chromate technology. - Provides practitioners of adhesion technology with a complete guide to bonding materials successfully - Covers the whole range of commonly used substrates including plastics, metals, elastomers and ceramics, explaining basic principles and describing common materials and application techniques - Introduces the range of commercially available adhesives and the selection process alongside the science and technology of adhesion

Sina Ebnesajjad is the series editor of Plastics Design Library (PDL) published in the William Andrew imprint of Elsevier. This Series is a unique series, comprising technology and applications handbooks, data books and practical guides tailored to the needs of practitioners. Sina was the editor-in-chief of William Andrew Publishing from 2005 to 2007, which was acquired by Elsevier in 2009. He retired as a Senior Technology Associate in 2005 from the DuPont fluoropolymers after nearly 24 years of service. Sina founded of FluoroConsultants Group, LLC in 2006 where he continues to work. Sina earned his Bachelor of Science from the School of Engineering of the University of Tehran in 1976, Master of Science and PhD from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, all in Chemical Engineering. He is author, editor and co-author of fifteen technical and data books including five handbooks on fluoropolymers technology and applications. He is author and co-author of three books in surface preparation and adhesion of materials, two of which are in their second editions. Sina has been involved with technical writing and publishing since 1974.His experiences include fluoropolymer technologies (polytetrafluoroethylene and its copolymers) including polymerization, finishing, fabrication, product development, failure analysis, market development and technical service. Sina holds six patents.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Ebnesajjad, Sina

Landrock, Arthur H.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Adhesives Technology Handbook;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Contents;6
5;Preface to Third Edition;18
6;Preface to Second Edition;20
7;Acknowledgments;22
8;1 Introduction and Adhesion Theories;24
8.1;1.1 Definition of Adhesives and Adhesive Bonding;24
8.2;1.2 Functions of Adhesives;25
8.3;1.3 Classification of Adhesives;26
8.4;1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Joining Using Adhesives;26
8.4.1;1.4.1 Advantages;26
8.4.2;1.4.2 Disadvantages;27
8.5;1.5 Requirements of a Good Bond;27
8.5.1;1.5.1 Proper Choice of Adhesive;27
8.5.2;1.5.2 Good Joint Design;27
8.5.3;1.5.3 Cleanliness;28
8.5.4;1.5.4 Wetting;28
8.5.5;1.5.5 Adhesive Bonding Process;28
8.6;1.6 Introduction to Theories of Adhesion;28
8.6.1;1.6.1 Mechanical Theory;30
8.6.2;1.6.2 Electrostatic (Contact Charging) Theory;31
8.6.3;1.6.3 Diffusion Theory;31
8.6.4;1.6.4 Wetting Theory;32
8.6.5;1.6.5 Chemical Bonding;33
8.6.5.1;1.6.5.1 Acid–Base Theory;35
8.6.6;1.6.6 Weak Boundary Layer Theory;36
8.7;1.7 Definition of Failure Modes;36
8.8;1.8 Mechanisms of Bond Failure;39
8.9;References;40
9;2 Surface Tension and Its Measurement;42
9.1;2.1 Introduction;42
9.2;2.2 What Is an Interface?;42
9.3;2.3 Surface Tension;42
9.4;2.4 Surface Free Energy;43
9.4.1;2.4.1 Surface Energy of Solids;45
9.4.2;2.4.2 Work of Adhesion;45
9.5;2.5 Contact Angle (Young’s Equation);46
9.6;2.6 Effect of Temperature on Surface Tension;48
9.7;2.7 Surface Tension Measurement;49
9.7.1;2.7.1 Measurement for Liquids: du Nouy Ring and Wilhelmy Plate Methods;50
9.7.2;2.7.2 Measurement for Solids: Liquid Homolog Series;52
9.8;References;57
10;3 Material Surface Preparation Techniques;58
10.1;3.1 Introduction;58
10.2;3.2 General Considerations;58
10.3;3.3 Surface Treatment of Metals;59
10.4;3.4 Cleaning (Degreasing) Metals;62
10.4.1;3.4.1 General Sequence of Cleaning;62
10.4.1.1;3.4.1.1 Solvent Cleaning;63
10.4.1.1.1;Vapor Degreasing;63
10.4.1.1.2;Ultrasonic Vapor Degreasing;64
10.4.1.1.3;Ultrasonic Cleaning with Liquid Rinse;66
10.4.1.1.4;Safety;67
10.4.1.2;3.4.1.2 Intermediate Cleaning;67
10.4.1.2.1;Grit Blasting (Contributed by Dr. Laurence W. McKeen);68
10.4.1.3;3.4.1.3 Chemical Treatment;68
10.5;3.5 Priming;69
10.6;3.6 Sol–Gel Process;69
10.7;3.7 Surface Treatment of Plastics;71
10.7.1;3.7.1 Effect of Treatment on Plastic Surfaces;71
10.7.2;3.7.2 Surface Cleaning;74
10.7.3;3.7.3 Mechanical Treatment (Surface Roughening);74
10.7.4;3.7.4 Corona Treatment;74
10.7.4.1;3.7.4.1 Three-Dimensional Corona Treatment;76
10.7.4.2;3.7.4.2 Corona Treatment Under Chemical Atmosphere;77
10.7.5;3.7.5 Flame Treatment;79
10.8;3.8 Methods for Evaluating Effectiveness of Surface Preparation;84
10.8.1;3.8.1 Dyne Liquids;84
10.8.2;3.8.2 Water-Break Test;84
10.8.3;3.8.3 Contact-Angle Test;84
10.9;3.9 Surface Exposure Time;85
10.10;References;88
11;4 Classification of Adhesives and Compounds;90
11.1;4.1 Introduction;90
11.2;4.2 Adhesive Composition Formulation;90
11.2.1;4.2.1 Adhesive Base or Binder;90
11.2.2;4.2.2 Hardener (for Thermosetting Adhesives);90
11.2.3;4.2.3 Solvents;91
11.2.4;4.2.4 Diluents;91
11.2.5;4.2.5 Fillers;91
11.2.6;4.2.6 Carriers or Reinforcements;91
11.2.7;4.2.7 Other Additives;91
11.3;4.3 Classification of Adhesives;92
11.3.1;4.3.1 Source: Natural vs. Synthetic Adhesives;92
11.3.1.1;4.3.1.1 Natural Adhesives;92
11.3.1.1.1;Starch and Dextrin;93
11.3.1.1.2;Gelatine (Animal, Fish, Vegetable Glues);93
11.3.1.1.3;Asphalt and Bitumen;93
11.3.1.1.4;Natural Rubber;93
11.3.1.1.5;Resins, Shellac;93
11.3.1.2;4.3.1.2 Synthetic Adhesives;93
11.3.2;4.3.2 Classification by Chemical Composition;94
11.3.2.1;4.3.2.1 Thermosetting Adhesives;94
11.3.2.2;4.3.2.2 Thermoplastic Adhesives;94
11.3.2.3;4.3.2.3 Elastomeric Adhesives;95
11.3.2.4;4.3.2.4 Adhesive Alloys;96
11.3.3;4.3.3 Classification by Function;96
11.3.3.1;4.3.3.1 Structural Adhesives;96
11.3.3.2;4.3.3.2 Nonstructural Adhesives;97
11.3.4;4.3.4 Classification by Physical Form;97
11.3.4.1;4.3.4.1 Liquid Adhesives;97
11.3.4.2;4.3.4.2 Paste Adhesives;98
11.3.4.3;4.3.4.3 Tape and Film Adhesives;98
11.3.4.4;4.3.4.4 Powder or Granule Adhesives;98
11.3.5;4.3.5 Classification by Mode of Application and Setting;98
11.3.6;4.3.6 Classification by Specific Adherends or Applications;98
11.3.7;4.3.7 Society of Manufacturing Engineers Classification;100
11.3.7.1;4.3.7.1 Chemically Reactive Types;100
11.3.7.2;4.3.7.2 Evaporative or Diffusion Adhesives;101
11.3.7.3;4.3.7.3 Hot-Melt Adhesives;101
11.3.7.4;4.3.7.4 Delayed-Tack Adhesives;102
11.3.7.5;4.3.7.5 Tape and Film Adhesives;102
11.3.7.6;4.3.7.6 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives;102
11.3.8;4.3.8 Classification by Rayner;102
11.3.8.1;4.3.8.1 Thermosetting Resin Adhesives;102
11.3.8.2;4.3.8.2 Thermoplastic Resin Adhesives;103
11.3.8.3;4.3.8.3 Two-Polymer Adhesives (Alloys);104
11.3.9;4.3.9 Additional Classification;104
11.4;4.4 Other Classifications;105
11.4.1;4.4.1 By the Type of Cure That Occurs in the Adhesive;105
11.4.2;4.4.2 By the Mechanical Properties of Adhesives;105
11.4.3;4.4.3 By the Number of Packages or Components Needed to Produce the Solidification or Curing of the Adhesive;106
11.5;References;106
12;5 Characteristics of Adhesive Materials;107
12.1;5.1 Acrylics;108
12.2;5.2 Allyl Diglycol Carbonate (CR-39);109
12.3;5.3 Alloyed or Modified (Two-Polymer) Adhesives;109
12.4;5.4 Anaerobic Adhesives/Sealants;114
12.5;5.5 Aromatic Polymer Adhesives (Polyaromatics);116
12.6;5.6 Asphalt;117
12.7;5.7 Butyl Rubber Adhesives;118
12.8;5.8 Cellulose Ester Adhesives;118
12.9;5.9 Cellulose Ether Adhesives;123
12.10;5.10 Conductive Adhesives;125
12.10.1;5.10.1 Electrically Conductive Adhesives (Chip-Bonding Adhesives);125
12.10.1.1;5.10.1.1 Snap Cure Conductive Adhesives;126
12.10.1.2;5.10.1.2 Heat Cure Conductive Adhesives;126
12.10.1.3;5.10.1.3 Room Temperature Cure Adhesives;126
12.10.1.4;5.10.1.4 Two-Component Conductive Adhesives;126
12.10.2;5.10.2 Thermally Conductive Adhesives;126
12.11;5.11 Cyanoacrylate Adhesives;128
12.12;5.12 Delayed-Tack Adhesives;131
12.13;5.13 Elastomeric Adhesives;132
12.14;5.14 Epoxy Adhesives;133
12.14.1;5.14.1 Hardening Agents for Epoxy Adhesives;134
12.15;5.15 Epoxy-Phenolic Adhesives;135
12.16;5.16 Epoxy-Polysulfide Adhesives;136
12.17;5.17 Film and Tape Adhesives (see also Section 5.3);136
12.18;5.18 Furane Adhesives;139
12.19;5.19 Hot-Melt Adhesives;140
12.19.1;5.19.1 Foamable Hot-Melt Adhesives;141
12.19.2;5.19.2 Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) and Polyolefin Resins;141
12.19.3;5.19.3 Polyamide (Nylon) and Polyester Resins;142
12.19.4;5.19.4 Other Hot-Melt Adhesives;142
12.20;5.20 Inorganic Adhesives (Cements);143
12.20.1;5.20.1 Soluble Silicates (Potassium and Sodium Silicate);144
12.20.2;5.20.2 Phosphate Cements;145
12.20.3;5.20.3 Basic Salts (Sorel Cements);145
12.20.4;5.20.4 Litharge Cements;145
12.20.5;5.20.5 Sulfur Cements;145
12.20.6;5.20.6 Sauereisen’s Adhesives;146
12.21;5.21 Melamine-Formaldehyde Adhesives (Melamines);146
12.22;5.22 Microencapsulated Adhesives;146
12.23;5.23 Natural Glues;147
12.23.1;5.23.1 Vegetable Glues;147
12.23.2;5.23.2 Glues of Animal Origin;149
12.24;5.24 Neoprene (Polychloroprene) Adhesives;151
12.25;5.25 Neoprene-Phenolic Adhesives;151
12.26;5.26 Nitrile-Epoxy (Elastomer-Epoxy) Adhesives;152
12.27;5.27 Nitrile-Phenolic Adhesives;152
12.28;5.28 Nitrile Rubber Adhesive;153
12.29;5.29 Nylon Adhesives;153
12.30;5.30 Nylon-Epoxy Adhesives;154
12.31;5.31 Phenolic Adhesives;154
12.31.1;5.31.1 Acid-Catalyzed Phenolics;154
12.31.2;5.31.2 Hot-Setting Phenolics;155
12.32;5.32 Phenoxy Adhesives;156
12.33;5.33 PBI Adhesives;156
12.34;5.34 Polyester Adhesives;158
12.35;5.35 PI Adhesives;158
12.36;5.36 Polyisobutylene Adhesives;159
12.37;5.37 Polystyrene Adhesives;159
12.38;5.38 Polysulfides (Thiokols);160
12.39;5.39 Polysulfone Adhesives;161
12.40;5.40 Polyurethane Adhesives;161
12.41;5.41 Polyvinyl Acetal Adhesives;163
12.42;5.42 Polyvinyl Acetate Adhesives;163
12.43;5.43 Polyvinyl Alcohol Adhesives;164
12.44;5.44 Polyvinyl Butyral Adhesives;164
12.45;5.45 Premixed Frozen Adhesives;164
12.46;5.46 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives;165
12.47;5.47 Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Adhesives;166
12.48;5.48 Rubber-Based Adhesives;166
12.48.1;5.48.1 Silicone Adhesives;166
12.49;5.49 Solvent-Based Systems;169
12.50;5.50 Thermoplastic Resin Adhesives;170
12.51;5.51 Thermoplastic Rubber (for Use in Adhesives);171
12.52;5.52 Thermosetting Resin Adhesives;172
12.53;5.53 UV-Curing Adhesives;172
12.54;5.54 Urea-Formaldehyde Adhesives (Ureas);173
12.55;5.55 Vinyl-Epoxy Adhesives;174
12.56;5.56 Vinyl-Phenolic Adhesives;174
12.57;5.57 Polyvinyl Formal-Phenolics;174
12.58;5.58 Polyvinyl Butyral-Phenolics;175
12.59;5.59 Vinyl-Resin Adhesives;175
12.60;5.60 Water-Based Adhesives;175
12.61;References;177
13;6 Adhesives for Special Adherends;183
13.1;6.1 Introduction;183
13.2;6.2 Metals;183
13.2.1;6.2.1 Aluminum and Alloys;183
13.2.2;6.2.2 Beryllium;185
13.2.3;6.2.3 Brass and Bronze;186
13.2.4;6.2.4 Cadmium (Plated on Steel);186
13.2.5;6.2.5 Copper and Copper Alloys;187
13.2.6;6.2.6 Gold;187
13.2.7;6.2.7 Lead;187
13.2.8;6.2.8 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys;187
13.2.9;6.2.9 Nickel and Nickel Alloys;188
13.2.10;6.2.10 Plated Metals;188
13.2.11;6.2.11 Platinum;189
13.2.12;6.2.12 Silver;189
13.2.13;6.2.13 Steel, Mild, Carbon (Iron);189
13.2.14;6.2.14 Stainless Steel;189
13.2.15;6.2.15 Tin;189
13.2.16;6.2.16 Titanium and Titanium Alloys;189
13.2.17;6.2.17 Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys;190
13.2.18;6.2.18 Uranium;190
13.2.19;6.2.19 Zinc and Zinc Alloys;190
13.3;6.3 Thermoplastics;191
13.3.1;6.3.1 Acetal Copolymer;191
13.3.2;6.3.2 Acetal Homopolymer;192
13.3.3;6.3.3 Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene;192
13.3.4;6.3.4 Cellulosics;192
13.3.5;6.3.5 Ethylene-Chlorotrifluoroethylene;193
13.3.6;6.3.6 Fluorinated-Ethylene Propylene (Teflon®);193
13.3.7;6.3.7 Fluoroplastics;193
13.3.8;6.3.8 Ionomer (Surlyn®);193
13.3.9;6.3.9 Nylons (Polyamides);193
13.3.10;6.3.10 Perfluoroalkoxy Resins;193
13.3.11;6.3.11 Phenylene-Oxide-Based Resins (Noryl®);193
13.3.12;6.3.12 Polyaryl Ether (Arylon T);194
13.3.13;6.3.13 Polyaryl Sulfone (Astrel 360; 3M Co.);194
13.3.14;6.3.14 Polycarbonate;194
13.3.15;6.3.15 Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (Aclar®);194
13.3.16;6.3.16 Polyester (Thermoplastic Polyester);195
13.3.17;6.3.17 Polyetheretherketone;195
13.3.18;6.3.18 Polyetherimide (ULTEM®);195
13.3.19;6.3.19 Polyethersulfone;195
13.3.20;6.3.20 Polyethylene;195
13.3.21;6.3.21 Polymethylmethacrylate;196
13.3.22;6.3.22 Polymethylpentene (TPX® by Mitsui Chemicals Co.);196
13.3.23;6.3.23 Polyphenylene Sulfide (Ryton®);196
13.3.24;6.3.24 Polypropylene;196
13.3.25;6.3.25 Polystyrene;196
13.3.26;6.3.26 Polysulfone;196
13.3.27;6.3.27 Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®);197
13.3.28;6.3.28 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC);197
13.3.29;6.3.29 Polyvinyl Fluoride (Tedlar®);197
13.3.30;6.3.30 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (Kynar®);197
13.3.31;6.3.31 Styrene-Acrylonitrile (Lustran®);198
13.4;6.4 Thermosetting Plastics (Thermosets);198
13.4.1;6.4.1 Diallyl Phthalate;198
13.4.2;6.4.2 Epoxies;198
13.4.3;6.4.3 Melamine-Formaldehyde (Melamines);198
13.4.4;6.4.4 Phenol-Formaldehyde (Phenolics);199
13.4.5;6.4.5 Polyester (Thermosetting Polyester);199
13.4.6;6.4.6 Polyimide;199
13.4.7;6.4.7 Polyurethane;199
13.4.8;6.4.8 Silicone Resins;199
13.4.9;6.4.9 Urea-Formaldehyde;199
13.5;6.5 Reinforced Plastics/Composites;199
13.6;6.6 Plastic Foams;200
13.7;6.7 Rubbers (Elastomers);201
13.8;6.8 Ceramics and Glass;202
13.9;References;203
14;7 Joint Design;206
14.1;7.1 Basic Principles;206
14.2;7.2 Types of Stress;206
14.2.1;7.2.1 Compression;207
14.2.2;7.2.2 Shear;207
14.2.3;7.2.3 Tension;208
14.2.4;7.2.4 Peel;208
14.2.5;7.2.5 Cleavage;208
14.3;7.3 Methods of Improving Joint Efficiency;208
14.4;7.4 Joint Design Criteria;210
14.5;7.5 Typical Joint Designs;212
14.6;7.6 Peeling of Adhesive Joints;214
14.7;7.7 Stiffening Joints;215
14.8;7.8 Cylindrical Joints;215
14.9;7.9 Angle and Corner Joints;217
14.10;7.10 Joints for Plastics and Elastomers;217
14.10.1;7.10.1 Flexible Materials;217
14.10.2;7.10.2 Rigid Plastics;219
14.11;7.11 Stress Analysis of Adhesive Joints;219
14.11.1;7.11.1 Theoretical Analysis of Stresses and Strains;219
14.11.2;7.11.2 Experimental Analyses;220
14.11.3;7.11.3 Failure Analyses;224
14.11.4;7.11.4 Methods of Stress Analysis;225
14.12;7.12 Optimizing Adhesive Bonding Through Joint Design—A Practical Approach;226
14.13;References;227
15;8 Adhesive Applications and Bonding Processes;229
15.1;8.1 Introduction;229
15.2;8.2 Adhesive;229
15.2.1;8.2.1 Storage;229
15.3;8.3 Adhesive Preparation;230
15.4;8.4 Adhesive Dispensers;232
15.4.1;8.4.1 Small-Portion Mixer Dispensers;232
15.5;8.5 Methods of Adhesive Application;233
15.5.1;8.5.1 Liquid Adhesives;233
15.5.1.1;8.5.1.1 Brushing;233
15.5.1.2;8.5.1.2 Flowing;233
15.5.1.3;8.5.1.3 Spraying;234
15.5.1.4;8.5.1.4 Roll Coating;235
15.5.1.5;8.5.1.5 Knife Coating;235
15.5.1.6;8.5.1.6 Silk Screening;235
15.5.1.7;8.5.1.7 Oil Can and Squeeze Bottle;236
15.5.1.8;8.5.1.8 Dip Coating;236
15.5.1.9;8.5.1.9 Roll and Knife Method;236
15.5.1.10;8.5.1.10 Application by Extrusion;237
15.5.2;8.5.2 Pastes;237
15.5.2.1;8.5.2.1 Spatulas, Knives, Trowels;237
15.5.3;8.5.3 Powders;238
15.5.4;8.5.4 Films;239
15.5.5;8.5.5 Hot Melts;239
15.5.5.1;8.5.5.1 Melt-Reservoir System (Tank-Type Applications);239
15.5.5.2;8.5.5.2 Progressive-Feed Systems;240
15.6;8.6 Joint-Assembly Methods;241
15.6.1;8.6.1 Wet Assembly;241
15.6.2;8.6.2 Pressure-Sensitive and Contact Bonding;242
15.6.3;8.6.3 Solvent Activation;242
15.6.4;8.6.4 Heat Activation;242
15.7;8.7 Curing;243
15.8;8.8 Bonding Equipment;243
15.8.1;8.8.1 Pressure Equipment;243
15.8.2;8.8.2 Heating Equipment;245
15.8.2.1;8.8.2.1 Direct Heating Curing;245
15.8.2.2;8.8.2.2 Radiation Curing;246
15.8.2.3;8.8.2.3 Electric Resistance Heaters;247
15.8.2.4;8.8.2.4 High-Frequency Dielectric (Radio Frequency) Heating;248
15.8.2.5;8.8.2.5 Induction Heating;248
15.8.2.6;8.8.2.6 Low-Voltage Heating;249
15.8.3;8.8.3 Ultrasonic Activation;249
15.8.4;8.8.4 Adhesive Thickness;250
15.9;8.9 Weldbonding;250
15.9.1;8.9.1 Weldbond Configuration;251
15.9.1.1;8.9.1.1 Advantages and Limitations;253
15.9.2;8.9.2 Surface Preparation;253
15.9.3;8.9.3 Adhesive Choice;253
15.9.4;8.9.4 Tooling for Weldbonding;254
15.9.5;8.9.5 Weldbonding Techniques;255
15.10;References;255
16;9 Solvent Cementing of Plastics;258
16.1;9.1 Introduction;258
16.2;9.2 Background;258
16.2.1;9.2.1 Solubility Parameter;259
16.2.2;9.2.2 Factors Affecting Adhesive and Solvent Bonding;260
16.2.2.1;9.2.2.1 Solubility;260
16.2.2.2;9.2.2.2 Stress Cracking;260
16.3;9.3 Solvents for Specific Polymers;264
16.3.1;9.3.1 Acetal Copolymer;264
16.3.2;9.3.2 Acetal Homopolymer;266
16.3.3;9.3.3 Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene;266
16.3.4;9.3.4 Cellulosics;266
16.3.4.1;9.3.4.1 Cellulose Acetate;266
16.3.4.2;9.3.4.2 Cellulose Acetate Butyrate;267
16.3.4.3;9.3.4.3 Cellulose Nitrate;268
16.3.4.4;9.3.4.4 Cellulose Propionate;268
16.3.4.5;9.3.4.5 Ethyl Cellulose;269
16.3.5;9.3.5 Nylons (Polyamides);269
16.3.6;9.3.6 Polycarbonate;270
16.3.7;9.3.7 Polystyrene;270
16.3.8;9.3.8 Styrene–Acrylonitrile;272
16.3.9;9.3.9 Polysulfone;272
16.3.10;9.3.10 Polybutylene Terephthalate (Valox®);272
16.3.11;9.3.11 Polymethyl Methacrylate;272
16.3.12;9.3.12 Phenylene Oxide-Based Resins (Noryl®);273
16.3.13;9.3.13 Polyvinyl Chloride;275
16.3.14;9.3.14 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride;277
16.3.15;9.3.15 Polyetherimide (Ultem®);277
16.4;9.4 Solvent Cementing—A Commercial Perspective;277
16.5;References;279
17;10 Adhesives for Medical and Dental Applications;281
17.1;10.1 Introduction;281
17.2;10.2 Natural Adhesives;282
17.3;10.3 Synthetic and Semisynthetic Adhesives;282
17.4;10.4 Cyanoacrylic Adhesives;282
17.4.1;10.4.1 Medical Grade Cyanoacrylate Adhesives;286
17.4.2;10.4.2 Commercial Grades of Cyanoacrylate Tissue Adhesives;289
17.5;10.5 Test Methods to Characterize Strength of Tissue Adhesives;292
17.6;10.6 Medical and Dental Applications of Adhesives;292
17.6.1;10.6.1 Adhesives for Skin Closure;294
17.6.2;10.6.2 Case Studies of Tissue Adhesives;295
17.6.2.1;10.6.2.1 Comparison of Effects of Suture and Tissue Adhesive on Bacterial Counts;295
17.6.2.2;10.6.2.2 Sutureless Anastomoses of Small and Medium Vessels;297
17.6.2.3;10.6.2.3 Tissue Adhesive as Dressing after Open Pediatric Urological Procedures;298
17.6.2.4;10.6.2.4 Tissue Adhesive Applications in Gastrointestinal Endoscopic Procedures;299
17.6.2.4.1;Gastric Variceal Bleeding;299
17.6.2.4.2;Esophageal Variceal Bleeding;300
17.6.2.4.3;Peptic Ulcer Bleeding;300
17.6.2.4.4;Bleeding from Other Sources;300
17.6.2.4.5;Closure of Fistula;300
17.6.2.5;10.6.2.5 Tissue Adhesives in Topical Skin Wounds;300
17.6.2.6;10.6.2.6 Tissue Adhesive for Closure of Hernia Incisions;301
17.6.2.7;10.6.2.7 Use of Tissue Adhesive for Skin Closure in Plastic Surgery;306
17.7;10.7 Bone Adhesives;306
17.8;10.8 Dental Applications of Adhesives;307
17.8.1;10.8.1 Methacrylic Acid;309
17.8.2;10.8.2 Methyl Methacrylate;309
17.8.3;10.8.3 Hydroxy Ethyl Methacrylate;311
17.8.4;10.8.4 4-Methacryloyloxyethyl Trimellitic Acid;311
17.8.5;10.8.5 4-Acryloyloxyethyl Trimellitate Anhydride;312
17.8.6;10.8.6 10-Methacryloyloxydecyl Dihydrogen Phosphate;312
17.8.7;10.8.7 Other Monomers;312
17.9;References;312
18;11 Durability of Adhesive Bonds;320
18.1;11.1 Introduction;320
18.2;11.2 High Temperature;322
18.2.1;11.2.1 Epoxies;323
18.2.2;11.2.2 Modified Phenolics;323
18.2.2.1;11.2.2.1 Nitrile-Phenolic;323
18.2.2.2;11.2.2.2 Epoxy-Phenolic;323
18.2.3;11.2.3 Polysulfone;324
18.2.4;11.2.4 Silicones;325
18.2.5;11.2.5 Polyaromatics;325
18.2.5.1;11.2.5.1 Polyimides;325
18.2.5.2;11.2.5.2 Polybenzimidazoles;325
18.3;11.3 Low and Cryogenic Temperatures;326
18.4;11.4 Humidity and Water Immersion;328
18.4.1;11.4.1 Effects of Surface Preparation on Moisture Exposure;329
18.4.2;11.4.2 Stressed Temperature/Humidity Test;331
18.4.3;11.4.3 Hot-Water-Soak Test;331
18.4.4;11.4.4 Fatigue-Life Data;334
18.5;11.5 Saltwater and Salt Spray;335
18.5.1;11.5.1 Seacoast Weathering Environment;336
18.5.2;11.5.2 Saltwater Immersion;338
18.5.2.1;11.5.2.1 Nitrile-Phenolic Adhesives;339
18.5.3;11.5.3 Boeing/Air Force Studies on Salt-Spray Effects;339
18.6;11.6 Weathering;340
18.6.1;11.6.1 Simulated Weathering/Accelerated Testing;340
18.6.2;11.6.2 Outdoor Weathering (Picatinny Arsenal Studies);340
18.7;11.7 Chemicals and Solvents;349
18.8;11.8 Vacuum;350
18.9;11.9 Radiation;352
18.10;11.10 Biological Organisms;356
18.11;11.11 Test Methods;357
18.12;11.12 Adhesive Bond Durability—A Commercial Perspective;357
18.13;References;359
19;12 Testing of Adhesive Bonds;362
19.1;12.1 Introduction;362
19.2;12.2 Tensile;362
19.3;12.3 Shear;363
19.4;12.4 Peel;364
19.5;12.5 Cleavage;365
19.6;12.6 Creep;365
19.7;12.7 Fatigue;366
19.8;12.8 Impact;366
19.9;12.9 Durability;366
19.10;12.10 Compilation of Test Methods and Practices;366
19.10.1;12.10.1 Aging (Permanency);366
19.10.2;12.10.2 Amylaceous Matter;367
19.10.3;12.10.3 Ash Content;367
19.10.4;12.10.4 Biodeterioration;367
19.10.5;12.10.5 Blocking Point;367
19.10.6;12.10.6 Characterization;367
19.10.7;12.10.7 Chemical Reagents;368
19.10.8;12.10.8 Cleavage;368
19.10.9;12.10.9 Cleavage/Peel Strength;368
19.10.10;12.10.10 Corrosivity;368
19.10.11;12.10.11 Creep;368
19.10.12;12.10.12 Cryogenic Temperatures;368
19.10.13;12.10.13 Density;368
19.10.14;12.10.14 Durability (Including Weathering);368
19.10.15;12.10.15 Electrical Properties;369
19.10.16;12.10.16 Electrolytic Corrosion;369
19.10.17;12.10.17 Fatigue;369
19.10.18;12.10.18 Filler Content;369
19.10.19;12.10.19 Flexural Strength;369
19.10.20;12.10.20 Flow Properties;369
19.10.21;12.10.21 Fracture Strength in Cleavage;370
19.10.22;12.10.22 Gap-Filling Adhesive Bonds;370
19.10.23;12.10.23 Grit Content;370
19.10.24;12.10.24 High Temperature Effects;370
19.10.25;12.10.25 Hydrogen Ion Concentration;370
19.10.26;12.10.26 Impact Strength;370
19.10.27;12.10.27 Low and Cryogenic Temperature;370
19.10.28;12.10.28 Nonvolatile Content;370
19.10.29;12.10.29 Odor;371
19.10.30;12.10.30 Peel Strength (Stripping Strength);371
19.10.31;12.10.31 Penetration;371
19.10.32;12.10.32 pH;371
19.10.33;12.10.33 Radiation Exposure (Including Light);371
19.10.34;12.10.34 Rubber Cement Tests;371
19.10.35;12.10.35 Salt Spray (Fog) Testing;371
19.10.36;12.10.36 Shear Strength (Tensile-Shear Strength);371
19.10.37;12.10.37 Specimen Preparation;372
19.10.38;12.10.38 Spot Adhesion Test;373
19.10.39;12.10.39 Spread;373
19.10.40;12.10.40 Storage Life;373
19.10.41;12.10.41 Strength Development;373
19.10.42;12.10.42 Stress-Cracking Resistance;373
19.10.43;12.10.43 Stripping Strength;373
19.10.44;12.10.44 Surface Preparation;373
19.10.45;12.10.45 Tack;374
19.10.46;12.10.46 Tensile Strength;374
19.10.47;12.10.47 Torque Strength;374
19.10.48;12.10.48 Viscosity;374
19.10.49;12.10.49 Volume Resistivity;374
19.10.50;12.10.50 Water Absorptiveness (of Paper Labels);374
19.10.51;12.10.51 Weathering;374
19.10.52;12.10.52 Wedge Test;375
19.10.53;12.10.53 Working Life;375
19.11;References;375
20;13 Quality Control;376
20.1;13.1 Introduction;376
20.2;13.2 Incoming Material Control;379
20.2.1;13.2.1 Adhesives;379
20.2.1.1;13.2.1.1 Adhesives: Mechanical Properties;380
20.2.1.2;13.2.1.2 Adhesives: Miscellaneous Properties (Including Creep);380
20.2.2;13.2.2 Surface Preparation Control;380
20.2.3;13.2.3 Process Control of Bonding;381
20.2.3.1;13.2.3.1 Prefit;381
20.2.3.2;13.2.3.2 Adhesive Application;382
20.2.3.3;13.2.3.3 Assembly;382
20.2.3.4;13.2.3.4 Curing;383
20.2.3.5;13.2.3.5 Standard Test Specimen;383
20.3;13.3 Final Inspection;383
20.4;13.4 Nondestructive Tests;383
20.4.1;13.4.1 Sonic Methods;385
20.4.1.1;13.4.1.1 Sonic Resonator;386
20.4.1.2;13.4.1.2 Eddy-Sonic Test Method;386
20.4.1.3;13.4.1.3 Pulsed Eddy-Sonic Test Method (Shurtronic Harmonic Bond Tester);386
20.4.1.4;13.4.1.4 Arvin Acoustic Analysis System;386
20.4.2;13.4.2 Ultrasonic Methods;386
20.4.2.1;13.4.2.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Contact Impedance Testing;388
20.4.2.2;13.4.2.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Immersion;388
20.4.2.3;13.4.2.3 Ultrasonic Multiple Transducer;389
20.4.3;13.4.3 Sweep-Frequency Resonance Method;390
20.4.4;13.4.4 Liquid Crystals;391
20.4.5;13.4.5 Holography;391
20.4.6;13.4.6 Thermal Image Inspection;392
20.4.7;13.4.7 Thermal Infrared Inspection (TIRI);392
20.4.8;13.4.8 Radiography;393
20.4.9;13.4.9 X-Ray Techniques;393
20.4.10;13.4.10 Radioisotope Methods;393
20.4.11;13.4.11 Neutron Radiography;393
20.4.12;13.4.12 Penetrant Inspection;394
20.4.13;13.4.13 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM);394
20.5;13.5 Weldbonding;395
20.6;References;396
21;14 Safety, Environmental, and Economic Aspects, and Future Trends;398
21.1;14.1 Safety;398
21.2;14.2 Environmental Considerations;403
21.2.1;14.2.1 Environmental Trends;403
21.3;14.3 Economics;403
21.4;14.4 Future Trends;405
21.5;References;407
22;Glossary;408
23;Index;422

Leseproben

Chapter 1 Introduction and Adhesion Theories
An adhesive is a material that is applied to the surfaces of articles to join them permanently by an adhesive bonding process. An adhesive is a substance capable of forming bonds to each of the two parts when the final object consists of two sections that are bonded together. A feature of adhesives is the relatively small quantities that are required compared to the weight of the final objects. Keywords
Adhesive; adhesion; bonding; superglues; sealing 1.1 Definition of Adhesives and Adhesive Bonding
An adhesive is a material that is applied to the surfaces of articles to join them permanently by an adhesive bonding process. An adhesive is a substance capable of forming bonds to each of the two parts when the final object consists of two sections that are bonded together [1]. A feature of adhesives is the relatively small quantities that are required compared to the weight of the final objects. Adhesion is difficult to define, and an entirely satisfactory definition has not been found. The following definition has been proposed by Wu [2]. Adhesion refers to the state in which two dissimilar bodies are held together by intimate interfacial contact such that mechanical force or work can be transferred across the interface. The interfacial forces holding the two phases together may arise from van der Waals forces, chemical bonding, or electrostatic attraction. Mechanical strength of the system is determined not only by the interfacial forces, but also by the mechanical properties of the interfacial zone and the two bulk phases. There are two principal types of adhesive bonding: structural and nonstructural. Structural adhesive bonding is bonding for applications in which the adherends (the objects being bonded) may experience large stresses up to their yield point. Structural adhesive bonds must be capable of transmitting stress without loss of integrity within design limits [3]. Bonds must also be durable throughout the useful service life of a part, which may be years. A structural bond has been defined as having a shear strength >7 MPa in addition to significant resistance to aging. Nonstructural adhesives are not required to support substantial loads but merely hold lightweight materials in place. This type of adhesive is sometimes called a “holding adhesive.” Pressure-sensitive tapes and packaging adhesives are examples of nonstructural adhesives. The distinction between structural and nonstructural bonds is not always clear. For example, is a hot melt adhesive used in retaining a fabric’s plies structural or nonstructural? One could argue that such an adhesive may be placed in either classification. However, the superglues (cyanoacrylates) are classified as structural adhesives even though they have poor resistance to moisture and heat. 1.2 Functions of Adhesives
The primary function of adhesives is to join parts together. Adhesives accomplish this goal by transmitting stresses from one member to another in a manner that distributes the stresses much more uniformly than can be achieved with mechanical fasteners. Adhesive bonding often provides structures that are mechanically equivalent to or stronger than conventional assemblies at lower cost and weight. In mechanical fastening, the strength of the structure is limited to that of the areas of the members in contact with the fasteners [4]. It is not unusual to obtain adhesive bonds that are of a strength greater than the strength of adherends. Smooth surfaces are an inherent advantage of adhesively joined structures and products. Exposed surfaces are not defaced and contours are not disturbed, as happens with mechanical fastening systems. This feature is important in function and appearance. Aerospace structures, including helicopter rotor blades, require smooth exteriors to minimize drag and to keep temperatures as low as possible. Lighter weight materials can often be used with adhesive bonding in contrast to conventional fastening because the uniform stress distribution in the joint permits full utilization of the strength and rigidity of the adherends [4]. Adhesive bonding provides much larger areas for stress transfer throughout the part, thus decreasing stress concentration in small areas. Dissimilar materials, including plastics, are readily joined by many adhesives, provided that proper surface treatments are used. Adhesives can be used to join metals, plastics, ceramics, cork, rubber, and combinations of materials. Adhesives can also be formulated to be conductive. The focus of this book is on adhesives for bonding plastics, thermosets, elastomers, and metals. Where temperature variations are encountered during the service of an item containing dissimilar materials, adhesives perform another useful function. Flexible adhesives are able to accommodate differences in the thermal expansion coefficients of the adherends and therefore prevent damage that might occur if stiff fastening systems were used. Sealing is another important function of adhesive joining. The continuous bond seals out liquids or gases that do not attack the adhesive (or sealant). Adhesives/sealants are often used in place of solid or cellular gaskets. Mechanical damping can be imparted to a structure through the use of adhesives formulated for that purpose. A related characteristic, fatigue resistance, can be improved by the ability of such adhesives to withstand cyclic strains and shock loads without cracking. In a properly designed joint, the adherends generally fail in fatigue before the adhesive fails. Thin or fragile parts can also be adhesive bonded. Adhesive joints do not usually impose heavy loads on the adherends, as in riveting, or localized heating, as in welding. The adherends are also relatively free from heat-induced distortion [4]. 1.3 Classification of Adhesives
Adhesives as materials can be classified in a number of ways such as chemical structure or functionality. In this book, adhesives have been classified into two main classes: natural and synthetic. The natural group includes animal glue, casein- and protein-based adhesives, and natural rubber adhesives. The synthetic group has been further divided into two main groups: industrial and special compounds. Industrial compounds include acrylics, epoxies, silicones, etc. An example of the specialty group is pressure-sensitive adhesives. 1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Joining Using Adhesives
The previous discussion highlighted a number of advantages of adhesive bonding. This section will cover both advantages and disadvantages, recognizing that some of the points have already been mentioned. 1.4.1 Advantages [5,6]
• Uniform distribution of stress and larger stress-bearing area • Join thin or thick materials of any shape • Join similar or dissimilar materials • Minimize or prevent electrochemical (galvanic) corrosion between dissimilar materials • Resist fatigue and cyclic loads • Provide joints with smooth contours • Seal joints against a variety of environments • Insulate against heat transfer and electrical conductance (in some cases adhesives are designed to provide such conductance) • The heat required to set the joint is usually too low to reduce the strength of the metal parts • Dampen vibration and absorb shock • Provide an attractive strength/weight ratio • Quicker and/or cheaper to form than mechanical fastening. 1.4.2 Disadvantages [5–7]
• The bond does not permit visual examination of the bond area (unless the adherends are transparent) • Careful surface preparation is required to obtain durable bonds, often with corrosive chemicals • Long cure times may be needed, particularly where high cure temperatures are not used • Holding fixtures, presses, ovens, and autoclaves, not usually required for other fastening methods, are necessities for adhesive bonding • Upper service temperatures are limited to approximately 177°C in most cases, but special adhesives, usually more expensive, are available for limited use up to 371°C • Rigid process control, including emphasis on cleanliness, is required for most adhesives • The useful life of the adhesive joint depends on the environment to which it is exposed • Natural or vegetable-origin adhesives are subject to attack by bacteria, mold, rodents, or vermin • Exposure to solvents used in cleaning or solvent cementing may present health problems. 1.5 Requirements of a Good Bond
The basic requirements for a good adhesive bond are [6]: • Proper choice of adhesive • Good joint design • Cleanliness of surfaces • Wetting of surfaces that are to be bonded together • Proper adhesive bonding process (solidification and cure). 1.5.1 Proper Choice of Adhesive
There are numerous adhesives available for bonding materials. Selection of the adhesive type and form depends on the nature of...