Dube / Bechara / Dagher Obesity Prevention

The Role of Brain and Society on Individual Behavior
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-0-08-092209-6
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 832 Seiten

Over the years, approaches to obesity prevention and treatment have gone from focusing on genetic and other biological factors to exploring a diversity of diets and individual behavior modification interventions anchored primarily in the power of the mind, to the recent shift focusing on societal interventions to design 'temptation-proof' physical, social, and economic environments. In spite of repeated calls to action, including those of the World Health Organization (WHO), the pandemic continues to progress. WHO recently projected that if the current lifestyle trend in young and adult populations around the world persist, by 2012 in countries like the USA, health care costs may amount to as much as 17.7% of the GDP. Most importantly, in large part due to the problems of obesity, those children may be the first generation ever to have a shorter life expectancy than that of their parents.
This work presents the most current research and proposals for addressing the pandemic. Past studies have focused primarly on either genetic or behavioral causes for obesity, however today's research indicates that a strongly integrated program is the best prospect for success in overcoming obesity. Furthermore, focus on the role of society in establishing an affordable, accessible and sustainable program for implementing these lifestyle changes is vital, particularly for those in economically challenged situations, who are ultimately at the highest risk for obesity.
Using studies from both neuroscience and behavioral science to present a comprehensive overview of the challenges and possible solutions, The brain-to-society approach to obesity prevention focuses on what is needed in order to sustain a healthy, pleasurable and affordable lifestyle.
* Explores the 'brain-to-society' approach to obesity prevention, focusing on an integrative approach to addressing the obesity pandemic
* Presents both the nueroscientific and the behavioral factors that impact eating habits
* Identifies the challenges and suggests solutions for altering attitudes toward food on both an individual and a societal level

Autoren/Hrsg.

Dube, Laurette

Bechara, Antoine

Dagher, Alain

Drewnowski, Adam

Lebel, Jordan

James, Philip

Yada, Rickey Y.

Y., Rickey

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Obesity Prevention: The Role of Brain and Society on Individual Behavior;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Contents;6
5;List of contributors;16
6;Preface;20
7;Acknowledgments;22
8;Introduction: On the Brain-to-Society Model of Motivated Choice and the Whole-of-Society Approach to Obesity Prevention;24
9;Part 1. FROM BRAIN TO BEHAVIOR;32
9.1;A. Energy is Delight: Sensory and Reward Systems;34
9.1.1;Chapter 1 The Pleasures and Pains of Brain Regulatory Systems for Eating;36
9.1.1.1;1.1 Introduction;36
9.1.1.2;1.2 Satiety Agents versus Aversion-Inducing Agents;37
9.1.1.3;1.3 Various Methodologies to Evaluate Affective Change in Pre-Clinical Appetite Research;38
9.1.1.4;1.4 Conditioned Taste Aversions – From Animal Models to Human Brain Analysis?;43
9.1.1.5;1.5 Conclusion;44
9.1.1.6;References;44
9.1.2;Chapter 2 The Neurobiology of Appetite: Hunger as Addiction;46
9.1.2.1;2.1 Introduction;46
9.1.2.2;2.2 Hunger as Addiction;47
9.1.2.3;2.3 Response to Conditioned Cues;48
9.1.2.4;2.4 Functional Brain Imaging of Cue Reactivity;51
9.1.2.5;2.5 Conclusion;51
9.1.2.6;References;52
9.1.3;Chapter 3 Opioids: Culprits for Overconsumption of Palatable Foods?;54
9.1.3.1;3.1 Introduction;54
9.1.3.2;3.2 Opioids and Feeding Behavior in Rodent Models;55
9.1.3.3;3.3 Opioids and Dysregulation of Eating Patterns and Body Weight in Human Beings;62
9.1.3.4;3.4 Conclusions and Perspectives;64
9.1.3.5;References;65
9.1.4;Chapter 4 Taste, Olfactory and Food-texture Processing in the Brain and the Control of Appetite;72
9.1.4.1;4.1 Introduction;73
9.1.4.2;4.2 Taste-Processing in the Primate Brain;73
9.1.4.3;4.3 The Representation of Flavor: Convergence of Olfactory, Taste and Visual Inputs in the Orbitofrontal Cortex;75
9.1.4.4;4.4 The Texture of Food, Including Fat Texture;75
9.1.4.5;4.5 Imaging Studies in Humans;75
9.1.4.6;4.6 Cognitive Effects on Representations of Food;77
9.1.4.7;4.7 Synthesis;78
9.1.4.8;4.8 Implications for Understanding, Preventing, and Treating Obesity;78
9.1.4.9;4.9 Concluding Remarks;83
9.1.4.10;References;84
9.1.5;Chapter 5 Cortical and Limbic Activation in Response to Low- and High-calorie Food;88
9.1.5.1;5.1 Introduction;88
9.1.5.2;5.2 Brain Responses to Food Stimuli in Healthy Adults;89
9.1.5.3;5.3 Modulating Factors;92
9.1.5.4;5.4 Cortical and Limbic Activation to Food Images During Adolescent Development;96
9.1.5.5;5.5 Conclusion;99
9.1.5.6;References;99
9.1.6;Chapter 6 Reward-related Neuroadaptations Induced by Food Restriction: Pathogenic Potential of a Survival Mechanism;104
9.1.6.1;6.1 Introduction;104
9.1.6.2;6.2 Food Restriction may Augment Neurobiological Responses to Palatable Food in a Way that Promotes Addictive Behavior;106
9.1.6.3;6.3 Food Restriction Enhances CNS and Behavioral Responses to Drugs of Abuse and Dopamine Receptor Agonists;107
9.1.6.4;6.4 Food Restriction Up-regulates D1 Dopamine Receptor-Mediated Phosphorylation of Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors and Signaling Proteins that Underlie Synaptic Plasticity;108
9.1.6.5;6.5 Striatal Neuroadaptations Induced by Food Restriction may be Secondary to Changes in Pre-synaptic Dopamine Neuronal Function;110
9.1.6.6;6.6 A Schema to Consider as Research Continues;111
9.1.6.7;References;112
9.2;B. Executive Control Systems and the Challenges They Face in the Modern World of Plenty;118
9.2.1;Chapter 7 The Neuroeconomics of Food Selection and Purchase;120
9.2.1.1;7.1 Introduction;120
9.2.1.2;7.2 Positive Valuations;121
9.2.1.3;7.3 Influences on Positive Valuations;121
9.2.1.4;7.4 Negative Valuations;124
9.2.1.5;7.5 Influences on Negative Valuations;126
9.2.1.6;7.6 Selection;127
9.2.1.7;7.7 Habits;131
9.2.1.8;7.8 Conclusions;132
9.2.1.9;References;132
9.2.2;Chapter 8 Resisting Temptation: Impulse Control and Trade-offs between Immediate Rewards and Long-term Consequences;136
9.2.2.1;8.1 Introduction;136
9.2.2.2;8.2 A Neural System for Decision-Making and Will-power: The Somatic Marker Hypothesis;137
9.2.2.3;8.3 Empirical Evidence for Deficits of Decision-making Underlying Obesity;139
9.2.2.4;8.4 Conclusion;143
9.2.2.5;References;143
9.2.3;Chapter 9 Hunger, Satiety, and Food Preferences: Effects of the Brain and the Body on the Self-Control of Eating;146
9.2.3.1;9.1 Introduction;146
9.2.3.2;9.2 The Components of Self-control;147
9.2.3.3;9.3 Physiological Influences on Self-control;148
9.2.3.4;9.4 Promoting Self-control for a Healthy Body Weight;152
9.2.3.5;9.5 Conclusions;153
9.2.3.6;References;153
9.2.4;Chapter 10 Associative Learning and the Control of Food Intake;156
9.2.4.1;10.1 A Behavioral Reporting of Eating;156
9.2.4.2;10.2 Eating is a Learned Behavior;157
9.2.4.3;10.3 Forms of Learned Ingestive Response;157
9.2.4.4;10.4 Sensory-specific Anticipatory Eating;158
9.2.4.5;10.5 Diurnal Rhythms and the Learned Response;161
9.2.4.6;10.6 Nutrients and Cognition;161
9.2.4.7;10.7 Dietary Fats and Learning;161
9.2.4.8;10.8 Our Primitive Brain;162
9.2.4.9;References;162
9.2.5;Chapter 11 Restrained Eating in a World of Plenty;166
9.2.5.1;11.1 Introduction;166
9.2.5.2;11.2 The Effects of Having Food Cues Present;167
9.2.5.3;11.3 Response to Food Cues in Restrained and Unrestrained Eaters;167
9.2.5.4;11.4 Food Photographs and/or Words – Indirect Food Cues;169
9.2.5.5;11.5 Portion Size as Food Cue;170
9.2.5.6;11.6 The Removal of Food Cues;171
9.2.5.7;11.7 Caloric Restriction in Animals and Humans;171
9.2.5.8;11.8 Is CR Likely to be Effective for Humans?;172
9.2.5.9;11.9 Caloric Restriction in the Presence of Food Cues;173
9.2.5.10;11.10 Dieting in a World of Food Cues;175
9.2.5.11;References;175
9.3;C. Biological Systems that Favor a Positive Energy Balance and Body-weight Increase in a World of Plenty;178
9.3.1;Chapter 12 The Genetic Determinants of Ingestive Behavior: Sensory, Energy Homeostasis and Food Reward Aspects of Ingestive Behavior;180
9.3.1.1;12.1 Introduction;180
9.3.1.2;12.2 Sensory Determinants of Food Intake;182
9.3.1.3;12.3 Energy Homeostasis Pathways and Food Intake;183
9.3.1.4;12.4 Reward Circuits and Food Intake;186
9.3.1.5;12.5 Conclusions;187
9.3.1.6;References;188
9.3.2;Chapter 13 Development of Human Learned Flavor Likes and Dislikes;192
9.3.2.1;13.1 Introduction;192
9.3.2.2;13.2 Understanding Flavor Perception;193
9.3.2.3;13.3 Why Innate Flavor-liking is Rare;194
9.3.2.4;13.4 Flavor-preference Learning;195
9.3.2.5;13.5 Different Learning Mechanisms Interact to Enhance Flavor-liking;199
9.3.2.6;13.6 Liking and Intake: The Role of Palatability in Overeating;200
9.3.2.7;13.7 Acquired Liking as a Driver of Overeating;201
9.3.2.8;13.8 Individual Differences in Learning;202
9.3.2.9;13.9 Summary;204
9.3.2.10;References;204
9.3.3;Chapter 14 Biopsychological Factors and Body-weight Stability;210
9.3.3.1;14.1 Introduction;210
9.3.3.2;14.2 Is Knowledge-based Work a Potential Determinant of the Current Obesity Epidemic?;211
9.3.3.3;14.3 Is Short Sleep Duration a Potential Determinant of the Current Obesity Epidemic?;214
9.3.3.4;14.4 Weight Loss: Not Always Beneficial for the Psychological Health;215
9.3.3.5;14.5 Physical Activity and Diet: What is the Impact on Body-weight Stability?;217
9.3.3.6;14.6 Conclusion and Perspectives;217
9.3.3.7;References;218
9.3.4;Chapter 15 Nutrition, Epigenomics and the Development of Obesity: How the Genome Learns from Experience;222
9.3.4.1;15.1 The Basics of Epigenetics and Epigenomics;222
9.3.4.2;15.2 Epigenetic Marks During Development and Aging;224
9.3.4.3;15.3 Nutritional Epigenomics;225
9.3.4.4;15.4 Epigenetics and Brain Function;227
9.3.4.5;15.5 An Epigenetic Basis for Developmental Programming of Obesity?;228
9.3.4.6;15.6 Physical Activity, Epigenetic Markings and Obesity;228
9.3.4.7;15.7 Concluding Comments;229
9.3.4.8;References;230
9.3.5;Chapter 16 The Role of Early Life Experiences in Flavor Perception and Delight;234
9.3.5.1;16.1 Introduction;234
9.3.5.2;16.2 Flavor and the Ontogeny of the Senses;236
9.3.5.3;16.3 Taste and Development;238
9.3.5.4;16.4 Learning about Food Flavors;242
9.3.5.5;16.5 Concluding Remarks;243
9.3.5.6;References;244
9.3.6;Chapter 17 Implications of the Glycemic Index in Obesity;250
9.3.6.1;17.1 Introduction;250
9.3.6.2;17.2 The concept of the Glycemic Index;251
9.3.6.3;17.3 Mechanisms of Action;252
9.3.6.4;17.4 Effects of low GI Foods on Appetite, Food Intake and Satiety;253
9.3.6.5;17.5 GI and Obesity;255
9.3.6.6;17.6 GI and Diabetes;255
9.3.6.7;17.7 GI and Cardiovascular Disease;256
9.3.6.8;17.8 Conclusion;257
9.3.6.9;References;257
9.3.7;Chapter 18 Characterizing the Homeostatic and Hedonic Markers of the Susceptible Phenotype;262
9.3.7.1;18.1 The Approach;263
9.3.7.2;18.2 Susceptible and Resistant Phenotypes;263
9.3.7.3;18.3 What Would a Susceptible Phenotype Look Like?;264
9.3.7.4;18.4 What Level of Analysis is Appropriate?;264
9.3.7.5;18.5 Appetite is Not Rocket Science – It is More Complicated;265
9.3.7.6;18.6 Diversity, Susceptibility and Homeostasis;265
9.3.7.7;18.7 Hedonics: The Importance of Liking and Wanting;266
9.3.7.8;18.8 Comparing Susceptible and Resistant Phenotypes;267
9.3.7.9;18.9 Resistance to Weight Loss – The Other Side of Susceptibility;268
9.3.7.10;18.10 Conclusions;269
9.3.7.11;References;269
9.3.8;Chapter 19 The Carnivore Connection: Cross-population Differences in the Prevalence of Genes Producing Insulin Resistance;272
9.3.8.1;19.1 Background;272
9.3.8.2;19.2 The Evolution of Insulin Resistance;273
9.3.8.3;19.3 Determinants of Insulin Resistance;275
9.3.8.4;19.4 Candidate Genes and Cross-population Genetic Differences;277
9.3.8.5;19.5 Conclusion;279
9.3.8.6;References;279
9.3.9;Chapter 20 Neuroanatomical Correlates of Hunger and Satiaty in Lean and Obese Individuals;284
9.3.9.1;20.1 Physiology of Hunger and Satiety in Human Eating Behavior;284
9.3.9.2;20.2 Functional Neuroimaging Evidence;285
9.3.9.3;References;289
9.3.10;Chapter 21 Neuroendocrine Stress Response and Its Impact on Eating Behavior and Body Weight;292
9.3.10.1;21.1 Introduction;292
9.3.10.2;21.2 Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal Axis;293
9.3.10.3;21.3 Stress and Food Intake: It is Not all Homeostatic or Automatic;294
9.3.10.4;21.4 Imaging Studies in Humans;295
9.3.10.5;21.5 Peripheral Signals Regulating Energy Balance;296
9.3.10.6;21.6 Conclusion;298
9.3.10.7;References;299
9.4;D. Integrative and Multi-level Models of Eating and of Energy and Body-weight Regulation;304
9.4.1;Chapter 22 Eating Behavior and its Determinants: From Gene to Environment;306
9.4.1.1;22.1 Introduction;306
9.4.1.2;22.2 Genes;307
9.4.1.3;22.3 The Environment;307
9.4.1.4;22.4 Genes – Environment Interactions;309
9.4.1.5;22.5 A General Model of Intake Regulation;311
9.4.1.6;22.6 Discussion;313
9.4.1.7;References;314
9.4.2;Chapter 23 The Molecular Regulation of Body Weight: The Role of Leptin, Ghrelin and Hypocretin;318
9.4.2.1;23.1 Introduction;318
9.4.2.2;23.2 Leptin, Ghrelin and Hypocretin;319
9.4.2.3;23.3 Leptin Protein;319
9.4.2.4;23.4 Ghrelin Protein;321
9.4.2.5;23.5 Hypocretin Protein;322
9.4.2.6;23.6 Concluding Remarks;324
9.4.2.7;References;325
9.4.3;Chapter 24 Energy Balance Regulation: Complex Interplay between the Autonomic and Cognitive/Limbic Brains to Control Food Intake and Thermogenesis;330
9.4.3.1;24.1 Introduction;330
9.4.3.2;24.2 The Regulation of Energy Balance;331
9.4.3.3;24.3 Brain Pathways Involved in the Control of Food Intake and Thermogenesis;332
9.4.3.4;24.4 Conclusion;340
9.4.3.5;References;341
9.5;E. Individual-level Interventions to Tap into Appropriate Brain Systems for Sustainable Behavioral Change;348
9.5.1;Chapter 25 Stealth Interventions for Obesity Prevention and Control: Motivating Behavior Change;350
9.5.1.1;25.1 Motivation for Behavior Change;350
9.5.1.2;25.2 Self-efficacy;351
9.5.1.3;25.3 Stealth Interventions;351
9.5.1.4;25.4 Social and Ideological Movements as Stealth Interventions to Change Health Behaviors;354
9.5.1.5;25.5 Conclusion;355
9.5.1.6;References;357
9.5.2;Chapter 26 From Diets to Healthy and Pleasurable Everyday Eating;360
9.5.2.1;26.1 The Diet Zeitgest;360
9.5.2.2;26.2 A New Weight Paradigm;366
9.5.2.3;26.3 The New Paradigm's Contribution to Solving the Obesity Epidemic;368
9.5.2.4;References;370
9.5.3;Chapter 27 Resisting Temptations: How Food-Related Control Abilities can be Strengthened through Implementation Intentions;374
9.5.3.1;27.1 Introduction;374
9.5.3.2;27.2 The Motivational Nature of Food;375
9.5.3.3;27.3 Food-Related Control Abilities;377
9.5.3.4;References;381
9.5.4;Chapter 28 The Dieter's Dilemma: Identifying When and How to Control Consumption;384
9.5.4.1;28.1 Introduction;384
9.5.4.2;28.2 A Two-stage Model of Self-control: Identification versus Resolution;385
9.5.4.3;28.3 Conclusions;392
9.5.4.4;References;393
9.5.5;Chapter 29 Lifestyle Change and Maintenance in Obesity Treatment and Prevention: A Self-determination Theory Perspective;396
9.5.5.1;29.1 Introduction;396
9.5.5.2;29.2 Self-determination Theory;397
9.5.5.3;29.3 Self-regulation;397
9.5.5.4;29.4 Need-supportive Contexts;398
9.5.5.5;29.5 SDT and Weight Loss;400
9.5.5.6;29.6 Potentional Limitations of Current Interventions: An SDT Perspective;401
9.5.5.7;29.7 Directions for Future Research Based on SDT;402
9.5.5.8;References;403
9.5.6;Chapter 30 Nutritional Genomics in Obesity Prevention and Treatment;406
9.5.6.1;30.1 Background;406
9.5.6.2;30.2 The Genetics of Obesity;407
9.5.6.3;30.3 Nutritional Genomics;410
9.5.6.4;30.4 The Role of Gene Polymorphisms;411
9.5.6.5;30.5 The Role of Gene Expression;412
9.5.6.6;30.6 From Bench to Bedside: Predicting Outcome;415
9.5.6.7;30.7 Outlook;416
9.5.6.8;References;417
9.5.7;Chapter 31 Physical Activity for Obese Children and Adults;422
9.5.7.1;31.1 Introduction;422
9.5.7.2;31.2 Adults and Physical Activity;423
9.5.7.3;31.3 Physical Activity and Young People;423
9.5.7.4;31.4 Linking Physical Activity and Obesity;424
9.5.7.5;31.5 The Model;425
9.5.7.6;31.6 Fit or Fat;430
9.5.7.7;31.7 Conclusion;430
9.5.7.8;References;430
10;Part 2. FROM SOCIETY TO BEHAVIOR: POLICY AND ACTION;434
10.1;A. Economy as a Core Society System Shaping Policy and Action that Determine Behavior;436
10.1.1;Chapter 32 Economic Growth as a Path Toward Poverty Reduction, Better Nutrition and Sustainable Population Growth;438
10.1.1.1;32.1 Introduction and a Definition of Terms;438
10.1.1.2;32.2 What is Needed to Accelerate and Sustain Growth?;440
10.1.1.3;32.3 Country Case Study: China and India;441
10.1.1.4;32.4 The Case of Undernutrition and Obesity;444
10.1.1.5;References;447
10.1.2;Chapter 33 The Human Agent, Behavioral Changes and Policy Implications;448
10.1.2.1;33.1 The Economic and Psychological View of Human Nature;448
10.1.2.2;33.2 Culture as an Economic Externality;449
10.1.2.3;33.3 A Psychologist's Explanation of Behavior;449
10.1.2.4;33.4 Happiness, or the Power of Human Adaptability;450
10.1.2.5;33.5 An Argument for Some Paternalism;451
10.1.2.6;References;452
10.1.3;Chapter 34 The Four Pillars of the Industrial Machine: Can the Wheels be Steered in a Healthier Direction?;454
10.1.3.1;34.1 Introduction;454
10.1.3.2;34.2 Malthus' World;455
10.1.3.3;34.3 How Nations Become Wealthy;456
10.1.3.4;34.4 The Progress of Economic Development;457
10.1.3.5;34.5 Measuring Economic Development;460
10.1.3.6;34.6 The 2 Percent Productivity Cruise Control;460
10.1.3.7;34.7 The Obesity Connection;461
10.1.3.8;34.8 The Way Forward;462
10.1.3.9;References;463
10.1.4;Chapter 35 Libertarian Paternalism: Nudging Individuals toward Obesity Prevention;466
10.1.4.1;35.1 Introduction;466
10.1.4.2;35.2 Biases and Shortcomings in Human Decision-making;467
10.1.4.3;35.3 On Libertarian Paternalism;469
10.1.4.4;35.4 Libertarian Paternalism Applied;471
10.1.4.5;35.5 Limitations and Conclusion;471
10.1.4.6;References;472
10.2;B. Needs and Challenges in Policy and Action to Prevent Obesity;474
10.2.1;Chapter 36 The Current State of the Obesity Pandemic: How We Got Here and Where We Are Going;476
10.2.1.1;36.1 The Current State of the Obesity Pandemic;476
10.2.1.2;36.2 How did We Get Here?;487
10.2.1.3;36.3 The Complexity of the Problem;492
10.2.1.4;References;492
10.2.2;Chapter 37 The Underweight/Overweight Paradox in Developing Societies: Causes and Policy Implications;494
10.2.2.1;37.1 Introduction;494
10.2.2.2;37.2 The Reasons Underlying the Underweight/Overweight "Paradox";495
10.2.2.3;37.3 Public Policies Needed to Tackle the Coexistence of Underweight/Overweight;497
10.2.2.4;37.4 Applying the WHO Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health;499
10.2.2.5;37.5 Conclusion;499
10.2.2.6;References;499
10.2.3;Chapter 38 The Drivers of Body Weight, Shape and Health: An Indian Perspective of Domestic and International Influences;502
10.2.3.1;38.1 Introduction;503
10.2.3.2;38.2 Overweight and Obesity in Indian Children and Youth;503
10.2.3.3;38.3 Trends Influencing Intake;506
10.2.3.4;38.4 Trends in Energy Expenditure;511
10.2.3.5;38.5 Cross-cutting Issues;513
10.2.3.6;38.6 Conclusions;514
10.2.3.7;References;515
10.2.4;Chapter 39 Diets and Activity Levels of Paleolithic versus Modern Humans: Societal Implications for the Modern Overweight Pandemic;518
10.2.4.1;39.1 Introduction;518
10.2.4.2;39.2 The Four Eras of Change of Human Diets;519
10.2.4.3;39.3 Contrasting Food Intake during the Paleolithic Era versus Today;520
10.2.4.4;39.4 Energy Expenditure and Physical Inactivity;521
10.2.4.5;39.5 The Tipping Point of Energy Imbalance;522
10.2.4.6;39.6 Insights from Paleolithic Diets to Fight the Obesity Pandemic;522
10.2.4.7;References;523
10.3;C. Policy and Action to Shift the Drivers of Food Supply and Demand of the Agriculture and Agri-Food Value Chains in a Healthy Direction;526
10.3.1;Chapter 40 Agriculture, Food and Health;528
10.3.1.1;40.1 Introduction and Context;529
10.3.1.2;40.2 Food Consumption and Nutrition Situation;529
10.3.1.3;40.3 Agriculture–Nutrition Linkages;531
10.3.1.4;40.4 Analysis of South Asian Dietary Energy Supply and Nutrition Status;533
10.3.1.5;40.5 Dietary Transition in Asian Countries;534
10.3.1.6;40.6 The Impact of Urbanization;535
10.3.1.7;40.7 Overweight and Obesity in Asia;536
10.3.1.8;40.8 Policy Interventions;537
10.3.1.9;40.9 Conclusion and Recommendations;539
10.3.1.10;References;539
10.3.2;Chapter 41 Changing Food Systems in the Developing World;542
10.3.2.1;41.1 Introduction;542
10.3.2.2;41.2 Factors Driving Changes in Food Demand;543
10.3.2.3;41.3 Factors Driving Changes in Food Supply;545
10.3.2.4;41.4 Impact of Changes in Food Supply and Demand;546
10.3.2.5;41.5 The Key Role of Institutions and Research;549
10.3.2.6;References;550
10.3.3;Chapter 42 Green Revolution 2.5: From Crisis to a New Convergence Between Agriculture, Agri-Food and Health for Healthy Eating Worldwide;552
10.3.3.1;42.1 Introduction;553
10.3.3.2;42.2 Novel and Convergent Solutions for Agriculture, Agri-Food and Health;553
10.3.3.3;42.3 An Integrated Approach to the Food and Nutrition Value Chain;554
10.3.3.4;42.4 Challenges and Opportunities in Developing Green Revolution 2.5;556
10.3.3.5;42.5 Conclusion;559
10.3.3.6;References;559
10.3.4;Chapter 43 How High-level Consumer Research Can Create Low-caloric, Pleasurable Food Concepts, Products and Packages;560
10.3.4.1;43.1 Introduction;560
10.3.4.2;43.2 Where did this Systematic, RDE Approach Come From?;561
10.3.4.3;43.3 Designing the Product and Communicating It;561
10.3.4.4;References;572
10.3.5;Chapter 44 Reductions in Dietary Energy Density to Moderate Children's Energy Intake;574
10.3.5.1;44.1 Introduction;574
10.3.5.2;44.2 What is Energy Density?;575
10.3.5.3;44.3 Why is Energy Density Important?;576
10.3.5.4;44.4 Does Energy Density Influence Energy Intake?;576
10.3.5.5;44.5 Practical Strategies to Reduce Energy Density;578
10.3.5.6;44.6 Will Reducing the Energy Density of the Diet Benefit Every Child?;581
10.3.5.7;44.7 Future Directions in Energy Density Research;581
10.3.5.8;44.8 Conclusions;582
10.3.5.9;References;582
10.3.6;Chapter 45 Nurturing and Preserving the Sensory Qualities of Nature;586
10.3.6.1;45.1 Introduction;586
10.3.6.2;45.2 Determinants of Individual Food Choices and Current "Healthful Eating" Trends;588
10.3.6.3;45.3 Preserving the Natural Sensory Qualities of Food;592
10.3.6.4;References;596
10.3.7;Chapter 46 Aligning Pleasures and Profits: Restaurants as Healthier Lifestyle Enablers;598
10.3.7.1;46.1 Introduction;598
10.3.7.2;46.2 Industry Overview;599
10.3.7.3;46.3 Food-Away-From-Home Demand Drivers;601
10.3.7.4;46.4 How Restaurants Compete;603
10.3.7.5;46.5 Ways Forward;604
10.3.7.6;46.6 Conclusion;608
10.3.7.7;References;608
10.3.8;Chapter 47 A Study of Corporate Social Responsibility Activities of 12 Giant Food Companies (1980–2008) in Promoting Healthy Food;610
10.3.8.1;47.1 Introduction;610
10.3.8.2;47.2 Literature Review;612
10.3.8.3;47.3 Data, Sample and Methodology;613
10.3.8.4;47.4 Results and Sensitivity Analysis;615
10.3.8.5;47.5 Conclusion;618
10.3.8.6;Appendix A;618
10.3.8.7;Appendix B;619
10.3.8.8;Appendix C;620
10.3.8.9;References;620
10.4;D. Policy and Action for Creating Families, Schools, Communities and Social Networks that Support Individual Healthy Choice;622
10.4.1;Chapter 48 The Injunctive and Descriptive Norms Governing Eating;624
10.4.1.1;48.1 Introduction;624
10.4.1.2;48.2 Injunctive versus Descriptive Eating Norms;624
10.4.1.3;48.3 Norms are Situational;626
10.4.1.4;48.4 Socialization and the Creation of Eating Norms;626
10.4.1.5;48.5 Norm Violations;629
10.4.1.6;48.6 The Effect of Eating Norms on Health Outcomes;631
10.4.1.7;48.7 Affecting Norms through Marketing;631
10.4.1.8;48.8 Conclusion;632
10.4.1.9;References;632
10.4.2;Chapter 49 Family Meal Patterns and Eating in Children and Adolescents;636
10.4.2.1;49.1 Introduction;636
10.4.2.2;49.2 Do Family Meals Promote Good Nutrition?;637
10.4.2.3;49.3 Do Family Meals Promote Healthy Weights?;640
10.4.2.4;49.4 Do Family Meals Promote Health in Overweight Children?;642
10.4.2.5;49.5 Do Family Meals have Other Benefits?;642
10.4.2.6;49.6 What are Strategies to Promote Family Meals?;643
10.4.2.7;49.7 What Actions can Communities Take to Promote Family Meals?;644
10.4.2.8;49.8 What Remains to be Learned about Family Meals?;645
10.4.2.9;References;645
10.4.3;Chapter 50 Social Influences on Eating in Children and Adults;648
10.4.3.1;50.1 Introduction;648
10.4.3.2;50.2 Social Influences on the Control of Intake in Adults;649
10.4.3.3;50.3 Social Influence on Food Selection in Adults;651
10.4.3.4;50.4 Social Influences on the Control of Intake in Children;652
10.4.3.5;50.5 Social Influences on Food Selection in Children;654
10.4.3.6;50.6 Concluding Remarks;655
10.4.3.7;References;656
10.4.4;Chapter 51 Church- and Other Community Interventions to Promote Healthy Lifestyles: Tailoring to Ethnicity and Culture;660
10.4.4.1;51.1 Introduction;660
10.4.4.2;51.2 Background;661
10.4.4.3;51.3 Cultural Targeting and Tailoring in Community Settings;663
10.4.4.4;51.4 Religious Organizations as Communities within Communities;667
10.4.4.5;51.5 Challenges;673
10.4.4.6;51.6 Conclusion;677
10.4.4.7;References;678
10.4.5;Chapter 52 On Gluttony: Religious and Philosophical Responses to the Obesity Epidemic;684
10.4.5.1;52.1 Introduction;684
10.4.5.2;52.2 What is Gluttony?;685
10.4.5.3;52.3 What is Wrong with Gluttony?;686
10.4.5.4;52.4 Conclusions;690
10.4.5.5;References;691
10.4.6;Chapter 53 Social Alliances: Moving Beyond Corporate Social Responsibility to Private–Public Partnerships;692
10.4.6.1;53.1 Introduction;692
10.4.6.2;53.2 Partnership in Social Alliances;693
10.4.6.3;53.3 Social Alliances as a Strategy for Corporate Branding;694
10.4.6.4;53.4 Societal Interventions as Strategic Alliances;694
10.4.6.5;53.5 The Case Study Intervention;697
10.4.6.6;53.6 Discussion of the Case Study;700
10.4.6.7;53.7 Conclusion;700
10.4.6.8;References;701
10.4.7;Chapter 54 Social Networks, Social Capital, and Obesity: A Literature Review;704
10.4.7.1;54.1 Definition of Terms;704
10.4.7.2;54.2 Methodology;705
10.4.7.3;54.3 Two Debates;705
10.4.7.4;54.4 Social Capital and Obesity Literature;711
10.4.7.5;54.5 Final Considerations;714
10.4.7.6;References;715
10.4.8;Chapter 55 From Society to Behavior: Neighborhood Environment Influences;718
10.4.8.1;55.1 Introduction;718
10.4.8.2;55.2 Identification of Neighborhoods;721
10.4.8.3;55.3 Neighborhood Boundary Definition;721
10.4.8.4;55.4 Identification and Assessment of Neighborhood Environment Characteristics;722
10.4.8.5;55.5 Findings and Limitations;723
10.4.8.6;55.6 Conclusions and Implications;726
10.4.8.7;References;727
10.5;E. Challenges and Possibilities for Policy and Action in Reducing the Social and Economic Gradients in Health, Lifestyle and Obesity;730
10.5.1;Chapter 56 Social Determinants of Health and Obesity;732
10.5.1.1;56.1 Introduction;732
10.5.1.2;56.2 The Social Gradient of Health;733
10.5.1.3;56.3 Obesity and the Social Gradient of Health;734
10.5.1.4;56.4 The Burden of Disease;735
10.5.1.5;56.5 The WHO Commission on the Social Determinants of Health and a Possible Explanatory Framework;737
10.5.1.6;56.6 Applying the Framework to Policy;738
10.5.1.7;56.7 Targeted and Universal Policies;740
10.5.1.8;56.8 Conclusion;741
10.5.1.9;References;742
10.5.2;Chapter 57 The Role of the Environment in Socio-Economic Status and Obesity;744
10.5.2.1;57.1 Introduction;744
10.5.2.2;57.2 Food Consumption;745
10.5.2.3;57.3 Physical Activity;751
10.5.2.4;57.4 Summary and Conclusions;753
10.5.2.5;References;754
10.5.3;Chapter 58 The Economics of Obesity: Why are Poor People Fat?;758
10.5.3.1;58.1 Introduction;758
10.5.3.2;58.2 How do People Make Food Choices?;759
10.5.3.3;58.3 Energy-dense Foods Cost Less;760
10.5.3.4;58.4 Healthier Diets Cost More;761
10.5.3.5;58.5 The Growing Price Disparity in Food Costs;763
10.5.3.6;58.6 Does Restricting Food Costs Lead to Energy-dense Diets?;765
10.5.3.7;58.7 Why are Poor People Fat?;766
10.5.3.8;58.8 Approaches to Obesity Prevention;767
10.5.3.9;References;769
10.6;F. Challenges and Possibilities for a Broad Systems Approach to Policy and Action;776
10.6.1;Chapter 59 Challenges in Making Broad Healthy Lifestyle Plans: Revisiting the Nature of Health Interventions;778
10.6.1.1;59.1 The Context of Non-communicable Diseases;778
10.6.1.2;59.2 The Current Health Policy Framework;779
10.6.1.3;59.3 The Need for Joined-up Policy-making;780
10.6.1.4;59.4 The WHO Global Strategy for Diet, Physical Activity and Health;780
10.6.1.5;59.5 Improving the Global Policy Framework;782
10.6.1.6;59.6 Insights from Tobacco Control Efforts;783
10.6.1.7;59.7 Engaging the Private Sector;783
10.6.1.8;59.8 Conclusions;784
10.6.1.9;References;785
10.6.2;Chapter 60 Social Interactions and Obesity: An Economist's Perspective;788
10.6.2.1;60.1 Introduction;788
10.6.2.2;60.2 The Different Guises of Social Interactions;789
10.6.2.3;60.3 The Literature so Far;792
10.6.2.4;60.4 Policy Interventions Related to Social Interactions;793
10.6.2.5;60.5 Conclusions;795
10.6.2.6;References;795
10.6.3;Chapter 61 A Complex Systems Approach to Understanding and Combating the Obesity Epidemic;798
10.6.3.1;61.1 Introduction;798
10.6.3.2;61.2 Challenges for Study and Intervention Design;799
10.6.3.3;61.3 Complex Adaptive Systems;800
10.6.3.4;61.4 Applying a Complex Systems View to Obesity;802
10.6.3.5;61.5 Agent-based Computational Modeling;804
10.6.3.6;61.6 Conclusion;805
10.6.3.7;References;806
10.6.4;Chapter 62 Conclusion: A Whole-of-Society Approach to Obesity Prevention: New Frontiers in Science, Policy and Action, and the Emerging Models of Capitalism and Society to Make it Possible;810
10.6.4.1;62.1 Introduction;810
10.6.4.2;62.2 New Frontiers in Science;811
10.6.4.3;62.3 New Frontiers in Policy;813
10.6.4.4;62.4 New Frontiers in Action;814
10.6.4.5;62.5 Emerging Models of Capitalism and Society;816
10.6.4.6;References;817
11;Index;818
11.1;A;818
11.2;B;819
11.3;C;819
11.4;D;820
11.5;E;821
11.6;F;822
11.7;G;824
11.8;H;824
11.9;I;825
11.10;J;826
11.11;K;826
11.12;L;826
11.13;M;826
11.14;N;826
11.15;O;827
11.16;P;828
11.17;Q;829
11.18;R;829
11.19;S;829
11.20;T;831
11.21;U;831
11.22;V;831
11.23;W;831
11.24;Y;832
11.25;Z;832