DeCusatis / Kaminow The Optical Communications Reference

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-12-375164-5
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 473 Seiten

Extracting key information from Academic Press's range of prestigious titles in optical communications, this reference gives the R&D optical fiber communications engineer a quick and easy-to-grasp understanding of the current state of the art in optical communications technology, together with some of the underlying theory, covering a broad of topics: optical waveguides, optical fibers, optical transmitters and receivers, fiber optic data communication, optical networks, and optical theory. With this reference, the engineer will be up-to-speed on the latest developments in no-time. - Provides an overview of current state-of-the-art in optical communications technology, enabling the reader to get up to speed with the latest technological developments and establish their value for product development - Brings together material from a number of authoritative sources, giving both breadth and depth of content and providing a single source of key knowledge and information which saves time in seeking information from scattered sources - Explores latest technologies and their implementation, allowing the engineer to compare and contrast approaches and solutions - Provides just enough introductory material for readers to grasp the underpinning physics, giving the engineer an accessible introduction to the underlying theory for a proper understanding

Autoren/Hrsg.

Decusatis, Casimer

Kaminow, Ivan

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover
;1
2;Note from the Publisher;3
3;The Optical
CommunicationsReference;4
4;Copyright
;5
5;Contents;6
6;Section One
Optical theory;8
6.1;Chapter 1.1
Geometrical optics;10
6.1.1;1.1.1
Ray optics conventions and practical rules. Real and virtual objects and images;10
6.1.2;1.1.2
Thin lenses layout. Microscope and telescope optical configurations;14
6.1.3;1.1.3
Diaphragms in optical systems. Calculation of aperture angle and field of view. Vignetting;18
6.1.4;1.1.4
Prisms in optical systems;20
6.1.5;1.1.5
Solutions to problems;21
6.2;Chapter 1.2
Theory of imaging;30
6.2.1;1.2.1
al aberrations;30
6.2.2;1.2.2
Diffraction effects and resolution;40
6.2.3;1.2.3
Image evaluation;43
6.2.4;1.2.4
Two special cases;46
6.2.5;1.2.5
Solutions to problems;47
7;Section Two
Optical waveguides;62
7.1;Chapter 2.1
Wave theory of optical waveguides;64
7.1.1;2.1.1
Waveguide structure;64
7.1.2;2.1.2
Formation of guided modes;65
7.1.3;2.1.3
Maxwell’s equations;66
7.1.4;2.1.4
Propagating power;68
7.1.5;References;69
7.2;Chapter 2.2
Planar optical waveguides;70
7.2.1;2.2.1
Slab waveguides;70
7.2.2;2.2.2
Rectangular waveguides;77
7.2.3;2.2.3
Radiation field from waveguide;83
7.2.4;2.2.4
Multimode interference (MMI) device;86
7.2.5;References;91
8;Section Three
Optical fibers;92
8.1;Chapter 3.1
Optical fibers for broadband communication;94
8.1.1;3.1.1
Introduction;94
8.1.2;3.1.2
Optical transparency;95
8.1.3;3.1.3
Emergence of fiber amplifiers and DWDM systems;102
8.1.4;3.1.4
Fibers for metro networks;111
8.1.5;3.1.5
Coarse wavelength division multiplexing;113
8.1.6;3.1.6
Combating PMD in a fiber;113
8.1.7;3.1.7
Conclusion;114
8.1.8;Acknowledgments;114
8.1.9;References;114
8.2;Chapter 3.2
Polymer optical fibers;118
8.2.1;3.2.1
Introduction;118
8.2.2;3.2.2
Types of POFs;118
8.2.3;3.2.3
Manufacture of POFs;119
8.2.4;3.2.4
Comparison between silica fiber and polymer fiber;121
8.2.5;3.2.5
Applications of POFs;122
8.2.6;3.2.6
Polymer fiber gratings;127
8.2.7;3.2.7
Segmented cladding POF;128
8.2.8;3.2.8
Dyedoped polymer fiber amplifier;129
8.2.9;3.2.9
Conclusions;129
8.2.10;References;130
8.3;Chapter 3.3
Microstructured optical fibers;132
8.3.1;3.3.1
Fibers with micron-scale structure;132
8.3.2;3.3.2
Overview of optical properties;134
8.3.3;3.3.3
Fabrication approaches;137
8.3.4;3.3.4
Fiber design methodologies;139
8.3.5;3.3.5
Silica HFs;142
8.3.6;3.3.6
Soft glass fibers;148
8.3.7;3.3.7
PBGFs;151
8.3.8;3.3.8
Conclusion and the future;153
8.3.9;Acknowledgments;153
8.3.10;References;154
8.4;Chapter 3.4
Photonic bandgap-guided Bragg fibers;160
8.4.1;3.4.1
Introduction;160
8.4.2;3.4.2
Bragg fibers;161
8.4.3;3.4.3
Dispersion compensating Bragg fiber;167
8.4.4;3.4.4
Bragg fibers for metro networks;168
8.4.5;3.4.5
Fabrication;169
8.4.6;3.4.6
Conclusion;170
8.4.7;References;170
9;Section Four
Optical transmitters and receivers;172
9.1;Chapter 4.1
Optical transmitters;174
9.1.1;4.1.1
Basic transmitter specification terminology;175
9.1.2;4.1.2
Light emitting diodes;176
9.1.3;4.1.3
Lasers;179
9.1.4;4.1.4
Modulators;183
9.1.5;References;186
9.2;Chapter 4.2
Optical detectors and receivers;188
9.2.1;4.2.1
Basic detector specification terminology;189
9.2.2;4.2.2
PN photodiode;191
9.2.3;4.2.3
PIN photodiode;193
9.2.4;4.2.4
Other detectors;195
9.2.5;4.2.5
Noise;203
9.2.6;References;206
9.3;Chapter 4.3
Fiber optic link design;208
9.3.1;4.3.1
Figures of merit;208
9.3.2;4.3.2
Link budget analysis;210
9.3.3;4.3.3
Optical power penalties;211
9.3.4;References;215
10;Section Five
Fiber optic data communication;218
10.1;Chapter 5.1
History of fiber optical communication;220
10.1.1;5.1.1
Earliest civilization to the printing press;220
10.1.2;5.1.2
The next 500 years: Printing press to year 2000;221
10.1.3;5.1.3
Fiber optic communication advancement, 1950-2000;223
10.1.4;5.1.4
Communication storage and retrieval;227
10.1.5;5.1.5
Future of fiber optic communications, 2000-2050;229
10.1.6;References;233
10.2;Chapter 5.2
Small form factor fiber optic connectors;234
10.2.1;5.2.1
Introduction;234
10.2.2;5.2.2
MT-RJ connector;234
10.2.3;5.2.3
SC-DC Connector;237
10.2.4;5.2.4
VF-45 connector;238
10.2.5;5.2.5
LC connector;239
10.2.6;5.2.6
Other types of SFF connectors;241
10.2.7;5.2.7
Transceivers;243
10.2.8;5.2.8
SFF comparison;244
10.2.9;References;246
10.3;Chapter 5.3
Specialty fiber optic cables;248
10.3.1;5.3.1
Introduction;248
10.3.2;5.3.2
Fabrication of conventional fiber cables;248
10.3.3;5.3.3
Fiber transport services;253
10.3.4;5.3.4
Polarization controlling fibers;258
10.3.5;5.3.5
Dispersion controlling fibers;260
10.3.6;5.3.6
Photosensitive fibers;262
10.3.7;5.3.7
Plastic optical fiber;263
10.3.8;5.3.8
Optical amplifiers;264
10.3.9;5.3.9
Futures;265
10.3.10;References;268
10.4;Chapter 5.4
Optical wavelength division multiplexing;270
10.4.1;5.4.1
Introduction and background;270
10.4.2;5.4.2
Wavelength multiplexing;273
10.4.3;5.4.3
Commercial WDM systems;288
10.4.4;5.4.4
Intelligent optical internetworking;300
10.4.5;5.4.5
Future directions and conclusions;306
10.4.6;Acknowledgments
;308
10.4.7;References;309
11;Section Six
Optical networks;312
11.1;Chapter 6.1
Passive optical network architectures;314
11.1.1;6.1.1
FTTx overview;314
11.1.2;6.1.2
TDM-PON Vs WDM-PON;315
11.1.3;6.1.3
Optical transmission system;316
11.1.4;6.1.4
Power-splitting strategies in a TDM-PON;319
11.1.5;6.1.5
Standard commercial TMD-PON infrastructure;320
11.1.6;6.1.6
APON/BPON and G-PON;324
11.1.7;6.1.7
EPON;333
11.1.8;6.1.8
G-PON and EPON comparison;340
11.1.9;6.1.9
Super PON;342
11.1.10;6.1.10
WDM-PON;343
11.1.11;6.1.11
Summary;348
11.1.12;References;350
11.2;Chapter 6.2
Fiber optic transceivers;352
11.2.1;6.1.2
Introduction;352
11.2.2;6.2.2
Technical description of fiber-optic transceivers;353
11.2.3;6.2.3
The optical interface;354
11.2.4;6.2.4
Noise testing of transceivers;356
11.2.5;6.2.5
Packaging of transceivers (TRX);359
11.2.6;6.2.6
Series production of transceivers;361
11.2.7;6.2.7
Transceivers today and tomorrow;363
11.2.8;6.2.8
Parallel optical links;366
11.2.9;Acknowledgments;368
11.2.10;References;368
11.3;Chapter 6.3
Optical link budgets and design rules;370
11.3.1;6.3.1
Fiber-optic communication links (telecom, datacom, and analog);370
11.3.2;6.3.2
Figures of merit: SNR, BER, and MER;370
11.3.3;6.3.3
Link budget analysis: installation loss;373
11.3.4;6.3.4
Link budget analysis: optical power penalties;374
11.3.5;6.3.5
Gigabit ethernet link budget model;383
11.3.6;6.3.6
Link budgets with optical amplification;385
11.3.7;Case study WDM link budget design
;386
11.3.8;REFERENCES;386
11.3.9;ADDITIONAL REFERENCE MATERIAL:;388
11.4;Chapter 6.4
ROADMs in network systems;390
11.4.1;6.4.1
ROADMs-A key component in the evolution of optical systems;390
11.4.2;6.4.2
Terminology-A ROADM is a network element;391
11.4.3;6.4.3
Simple comparison of four competing network architectures;393
11.4.4;6.4.4
Routing properties-Full flexibility is best;394
11.4.5;6.4.5
Additional attributes-Rounding out the picture;397
11.4.6;6.4.6
ROADM/WADD architecture-Thinking inside the box;400
11.4.7;6.4.7
ROADM transmission system design;403
11.4.8;6.4.8
ROADM networks;414
11.4.9;6.4.9
Conclusions;417
11.4.10;Acknowledgments;417
11.4.11;References;417
11.5;Chapter 6.5
Fiber-based broadband access technology;422
11.5.1;6.5.1
Introduction;422
11.5.2;6.5.2
User demographics;424
11.5.3;6.5.3
Regulatory policy;426
11.5.4;6.5.4
Network architectures;426
11.5.5;6.5.5
Capital investment;432
11.5.6;6.5.6 Operational savings;434
11.5.7;Chapter 6.5.7
Technological advancements;434
11.5.8;6.5.8
Future bandwidth advancements;439
11.5.9;6.5.9
Summary;441
11.5.10;Acknowledgments;441
11.5.11;List of Acronyms;441
11.5.12;References;442
11.6;Chapter 6.6
Metropolitan networks;444
11.6.1;6.6.1
Introduction and definitions;444
11.6.2;6.6.2
Metro network applications and services;445
11.6.3;6.6.3
Evolution of metro network architectures;447
11.6.4;6.6.4
WDM network physical building blocks;452
11.6.5;6.6.5
Network automation;459
11.6.6;6.6.6
Summary;460
11.6.7;6.6.7
Future outlook;461
11.6.8;Acknowledgments;462
11.6.9;REFERENCES;462
12;Index;464
13;PHYSICAL CONSTANTS IN SI UNITS;472

Leseproben

Chapter 1.1 Geometrical optics
Menn 1.1.1 Ray optics conventions and practical rules. Real and virtual objects and images
Electro-optical systems are intended for the transfer and transformation of radiant energy. They consist of active and passive elements and sub-systems. In active elements, like radiation sources and radiation sensors, conversion of energy takes place (radiant energy is converted into electrical energy and vice versa, chemical energy is converted in radiation and vice versa, etc.). Passive elements (like mirrors, lenses, prisms, etc.) do not convert energy, but affect the spatial distribution of radiation. Passive elements of electro-optical systems are frequently termed optical systems. Following this terminology, an optical system itself does not perform any transformation of radiation into other kinds of energy, but is aimed primarily at changing the spatial distribution of radiant energy propagated in space. Sometimes only concentration of radiation somewhere in space is required (like in the systems for medical treatment of tissues or systems for material processing of fabricated parts). In other cases the ability of optics to create light distribution similar in some way to the light intensity profile of an “object” is exploited. Such a procedure is called imaging and the corresponding optical system is addressed as an imaging optical system. Of all the passive optical elements (prisms, mirrors, filters, lenses, etc.) lenses are usually our main concern. It is lenses that allow one to concentrate optical energy or to get a specific distribution of light energy at different points in space (in other words, to create an “image”). In most cases experienced in practice, imaging systems are based on lenses (exceptions are the imaging systems with curved mirrors). The functioning of any optical element, as well as the whole system, can be described either in terms of ray optics or in terms of wave optics. The first case is usually called the geometrical optics approach while the second is called physical optics. In reality there are many situations when we need both (for example, in image quality evaluation, see Chapter 2). But, since each approach has advantages and disadvantages in practical use, it is important to know where and how to exploit each one in order to minimize the complexity of consideration and to avoid wasting time and effort. This chapter is related to geometrical optics, or, more specifically, to ray optics. Actually an optical ray is a mathematical simplification: it is a line with no thickness. In reality optical beams which consist of an endless quantity of optical rays are created and transferred by electro-optical systems. Naturally, there exist three kinds of optical beams: parallel, divergent, and convergent (see Fig. 1.1.1). If a beam, either divergent or convergent, has a single point of intersection of all optical rays it is called a homocentric beam (Fig. 1.1.1b,c). An example of a non-homocentric beam is shown in Fig. 1.1.1 d. Such a convergent beam could be the result of different phenomena occurring in optical systems (see Chapter 2 for more details). Fig. 1.1.1 Optical beams: (a) parallel, (b,c) homocentric and (d) non-homocentric. Ray optics is primarily based on two simple physical laws: the law of reflection and the law of refraction. Both are applicable when a light beam is incident on a surface separating two optical media, with two different indexes of refraction, n1 and n2 (see Fig. 1.1.2). The first law is just a statement that the incident angle, i, is equal to the reflection angle, i'. The second law defines the relation between the incident angle and the angle of refraction, r: i/sinr=n2/n1.   (1.1.1) Fig. 1.1.2 Reflection and refraction of radiation. It is important to mention that all angles are measured from the vertical line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence (so that the normal incidence of light means that i = i'  = r = 0). In the geometrical optics approach the following assumptions are conventionally accepted: (a) radiation is propagated along a straight line trajectory (this means that diffraction effects are not taken into account); (b) if two beams intersect each other in space there is no interaction between them and each one is propagated as if the second one does not appear (this means that interference effects are not taken into account); (c) ray tracing is invertable; in other words, if the ray trajectory is found while the ray is propagated through the system from input to output (say, from the left to the right) and then a new ray comes to the same system along the outgoing line of the first ray, but propagates in the reverse direction (from the right to the left), the trajectory of the second ray inside and outside of the system is identical to that of the first ray and it goes out of the system along the incident line of the first ray. Normally an optical system is assumed to be axisymmetrical, with the optical axis going along OX in the horizontal direction. Objects and images are usually located in the planes perpendicular to the optical axes, meaning that they are along the OY (vertical) axis. Ray tracing is a procedure of calculating the trajectory of optical rays propagating through the system. Radiation propagates from the left to the right and, consequently, the object space (part of space where the light sources or the objects are located) is to the left of the system. The image space (part of space where the light detectors or images are located) is to the right of the system. All relevant values describing optical systems can be positive or negative and obey the following sign conventions and rules: ray angles are calculated relative to the optical axis; the angle of a ray is positive if the ray should be rotated counterclockwise in order to coincide with OX, otherwise the angle is negative; vertical segments are positive above OX and negative below OX; horizontal segments should start from the optical system and end at the relevant point according to the segment definition. If going from the starting point to the end we move left (against propagated radiation), the segment is negative; if we should move right (in the direction of propagated radiation), the corresponding segment is positive. Examples are demonstrated in Fig. 1.1.3. The angle u is negative (clockwise rotation of the ray to OX) whereas u' is positive. The object Y is positive and its image Y' is negative. The segment S defines the object distance. It starts from the point O (from the system) and ends at the object (at Y). Since we move from O to Y against the light, this segment is negative (S < 0). Accordingly, the segment S' (distance to the image) starts from the system (point O') and ends at the image Y'. Since in this case we move in the direction of propagated light (from left to right) this segment is positive (S' > 0). Fig. 1.1.3 Sign conventions. The procedure of imaging is based on the basic assumption that any object is considered as a collection of separate points, each one being the center of a homocentric divergent beam coming to the optical system. The optical system transfers all these beams, converting each one to a convergent beam concentrated in a small spot (ideally a point) which is considered as an image of the corresponding point of the object. The collection of such “point images” creates an image of the whole object (see Fig. 1.1.4). Fig. 1.1.4 Concept of image formation. An ideal imaging is a procedure when all homocentric optical beams remain homocentric after traveling through the optical system, up to the image plane (this case is demonstrated in Fig. 1.1.4). Unfortunately, in real imaging the outgoing beams become non-homocentric which, of course, “spoils” the images and makes it impossible to reproduce the finest details of the object (this is like a situation when we try to draw a picture using a pencil which is not sharp enough and makes only thick lines – obviously we fail to draw the small and fine details on the picture). The reasons for such degradation in image quality lie partially in geometrical optics (then they are termed optical aberrations) and partially are due to the principal limitations of wave optics (diffraction limit). We consider this situation in detail in Chapter 1.2. Here we restrict ourselves to the simple case of ideal imaging. In performing ray tracing one should be aware that doing it rigorously means going step by step from one optical surface to another and calculating at each step the incident and refraction angles using Eq. (1.1.1). Since many rays should be calculated, it is a time-consuming procedure which today is obviously done with the aid of computers and special programs for optical design. However, analytical consideration remains very difficult (if possible at all). The complexity of the procedure is caused mainly by the...