Carrier / Nordmann Science in the Context of Application

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-90-481-9051-5
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 492 Seiten

We increasingly view the world around us as a product of science and technology. Accordingly, we have begun to appreciate that science does not take its problems only from nature and then produces technological applications, but that the very problems of scientific research themselves are generated by science and technology. Simultaneously, problems like global warming, the toxicology of nanoparticles, or the use of renewable energies are constituted by many factors that interact with great complexity. Science in the context of application is challenged to gain new understanding and control of such complexity-it cannot seek shelter in the ivory tower or simply pursue its internal quest for understanding and gradual improvement of grand theories. Science in the Context of Application will identify, explore and assess these changes. Part I considers the 'Changing Conditions of Scientific Research' and part II 'Science, Values, and Society'. Examples are drawn from pharmaceutical research, the information sciences, simulation modelling, nanotechnology, cancer research, the effects of commercialization, and many other fields. The book assembles papers from well-known European and American Science Studies scholars like Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, Janet Kourany, Michael Mahoney, Margaret Morrison, Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, Arie Rip, Dan Sarewitz, Peter Weingart, and others. The individual chapters are written to address anyone who is concerned about the role of contemporary science in society, including scientists, philosophers, and policy makers.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Carrier, Martin

Nordmann, Alfred

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Contents;6
2;Contributors;9
3;Science in the Context of Application: Methodological Change, Conceptual Transformation, Cultural Reorientation;11
3.1; Research Going Practical: A Break with the Epistemic Past?;11
3.2; Changing Conditions of Scientific Research;12
3.3; Science, Values, and Society;14
3.4; Exploring Science in the Context of Application;16
3.5;References;17
4;Part I Changing Conditions of Scientific Research: Science and Technology;18
4.1;Knowledge, Politics, and Commerce: Science Under the Pressure of Practice;19
4.1.1; Research in Extra-Scientific Interest;19
4.1.2; Problem Selection in Fundamental and Application-Driven Research;21
4.1.3; Three Ways of Selecting Research Topics;24
4.1.4; The Epistemic Dignity of Application-Oriented Research;28
4.1.5; Benefit and Hazard of Application-Oriented Research;35
4.1.6;References;37
4.2;Between the Pure and Applied: The Search for the Elusive Middle Ground;39
4.2.1; Introduction: Defining the Problem;39
4.2.2; Superconductivity: Puzzling Phenomenon to Microscopic Theory;42
4.2.3; From Materials Research to Josephson Junctions: Between Theory and Practice;45
4.2.4; From Theory to Machines and Back Again;48
4.2.5; Conclusions;52
4.2.6;References;53
4.3;Science in the Context of Industrial Application: The Case of the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium;54
4.3.1; Introduction;54
4.3.2; From Seamless Web to Ivory Tower;56
4.3.3; The Pains of ``Fundamental'' Ambitions;59
4.3.4; Finalization as a Feasible Alternative?;64
4.3.5; Mode-2 and Interdisciplinarity as New Ideals;67
4.3.6; Disentangling Dichotomies;70
4.3.7;References;72
4.4;Multi-Level Complexities in Technological Development: Competing Strategies for Drug Discovery;74
4.4.1; An Obstinate Dilemma in Early Drug Development;74
4.4.2; Rational Drug Design and Its Limits;76
4.4.3; High-Throughput Screening as Alternative and Complement to Rational Design;80
4.4.4; Systems Biology Challenges Mainstream Drug Discovery;82
4.4.5; Is Emergence the Problem?;86
4.4.6;References;89
4.5;Theory and Therapy: On the Conceptual Structure of Models in Medical Research;91
4.5.1; The Cascade Model: Control Presupposes Understanding;91
4.5.2; Emergentism: The Limited Grip of General Theory;92
4.5.3; The Interactive View: Theory-Based Structures Adjusted Empirically;94
4.5.4; Biological Understanding and Medical Treatment;96
4.5.5; Chronic Inflammation and Cancer;98
4.5.6; Individualized Medicine and the Limits of the Cascade Model;102
4.5.7;References;104
4.6;Materials as Machines;106
4.6.1; From Structures to Functions;107
4.6.2; From Materials to Systems Approach;110
4.6.3; From Systems to Machines;112
5;Part II Changing Conditions of Scientific Research: The Role of Instruments;117
5.1;Holism and Entrenchment in Climate Model Validation;118
5.1.1; Climate Simulation;121
5.1.2; Modularity and Pluralism;123
5.1.3; Analytical Understanding Impossible;125
5.1.4; Validation of Climate Models;128
5.1.4.1; AMIP;128
5.1.4.2; CMIP;130
5.1.4.3; APE;130
5.1.5; Conclusions;131
5.1.6;References;132
5.2;Computational Science and Its Effects;134
5.2.1; Introduction;134
5.2.2; The Main Issue;136
5.2.3; What Is Metaphysically Different About Computational Science;138
5.2.4; What Is Epistemically New About Computational Science;140
5.2.4.1; In Practice, Not in Principle;140
5.2.4.2; Epistemic Opacity;142
5.2.4.3; The Link Between Science and Technology;143
5.2.5; Conclusion;144
5.2.6;References;144
5.3;Expertise in Methods, Methods of Expertise;146
5.3.1; Motivations;146
5.3.2; Scientific Methods;147
5.3.3; Expertise in a Scientific Context;149
5.3.3.1; Service;150
5.3.3.2; Training;151
5.3.3.3; Collaboration;152
5.3.4; Expertise in a Non-scientific Context;153
5.3.5; Distrust in Science: The Plea for Normalmethoden;155
5.3.6; Prospects;159
5.3.7;References;160
5.4;Recent Orientations and Reorientations in the Life Sciences;163
5.4.1; Introduction;163
5.4.2; The First Molecular Shift;163
5.4.3; The Second Molecular Shift;167
5.4.4;References;170
5.5;Transforming Objects into Data: How Minute Technicalities of Recording ``Species Location'' Entrench a Basic Challenge for Biodiversity;171
5.5.1; Introduction;171
5.5.2; A Story: Application of ``Locality'' Records in the History of the MVZ;174
5.5.3; Tension: Two Concepts for One Object;186
5.5.4; Resolution: Workable Alternation Rather than Universal Interoperability;189
5.5.5; Conclusion;192
5.5.6;References;193
6;Part III Changing Conditions of Scientific Research: Institutional Changes in Applied Research;196
6.1;Protected Spaces of Science: Their Emergence and Further Evolution in a Changing World;197
6.1.1; Introduction;197
6.1.2; Long-Term Dynamics of Institutionalized Knowledge Production;200
6.1.3; The Melting Pot of the Renaissance and Partial Closures;203
6.1.4; Professionalisation of Science in Bourgeois-Industrial Society;205
6.1.5; Sponsors and Spaces;206
6.1.6; The Existing Regime Is Opening Up;208
6.1.7; Ambivalences of Opening Up Institutionalized Knowledge Production;210
6.1.8; Institutional Responses of Funding Agencies and Universities;213
6.1.8.1; Funding Agencies;214
6.1.8.2; Universities;215
6.1.9; In Conclusion;216
6.1.10;References;218
6.2;The Cognitive, Instrumental and Institutional Origins of Nanoscale Research: The Place of Biology;221
6.2.1; Early History;222
6.2.2; Instruments and Materials;224
6.2.2.1; Materials by Design;224
6.2.2.2; Instrumentation;227
6.2.3; Science Policy Incentives -- from Embryo to Titan;232
6.2.4; The Place of Biology;234
6.2.4.1; The Use of Biological Materials for Studying Physical Phenomena and Their Spin-Offs;235
6.2.4.2; Shape, Structure and Function;236
6.2.4.3; Sensing and Detecting -- from Physics and Chemistry to Biology and Back;238
6.2.4.4; From the Micro to the Macroscale -- A Crucial Biological Concern;240
6.2.5;References;242
7;Part IV Science, Values and Society: Economic, Political and Public Relations of Research;243
7.1;Bringing the Marketplace into Science: On the Neoliberal Defense of the Commercialization of Scientific Research;244
7.1.1; Keyworth on Science and the Economy;246
7.1.1.1; The Bayh-Dole Act;248
7.1.1.2; The Road Not Taken: Japan and the Planning of Science;250
7.1.1.3; Science in a Neoliberal World;252
7.1.2; Evaluating the Neoliberal Defense of Commercialization;255
7.1.2.1; Bias and Conflicts of Interest;255
7.1.2.2; The Anticommons;258
7.1.2.3; Freedom and the Corporate Directing of Research;259
7.1.3; Conclusion: Neoliberalism, Freedom, and Power;265
7.1.4;References;266
7.2;Medical Market Failures and Their Remedy;269
7.2.1; Advanced Market Commitments;270
7.2.2; An Economic Analogy;274
7.2.3; Rare Diseases and Orphan Drugs;275
7.2.4; Orphan Epistemology;277
7.2.5;References;279
7.3;Thoughts on Politicization of Science Through Commercialization;280
7.3.1; Politicization;280
7.3.2; Commercialization;283
7.3.3; Public Trust and Threat to Democracy;286
7.3.4; Pure-Applied and Academic-Industrial Distinctions;288
7.3.5; The New Landscape of Science;292
7.3.6;References;295
7.4;Political Effectiveness in Science and Technology;297
7.4.1; Prologue: Why Do Some Things Get Better?;297
7.4.2; Science, Technology, and the Political Logics of Climate Change;299
7.4.3; The Mysterious Case of the Missing Causal Agent: Technology and the Ozone Problem;302
7.4.4; One Works, the Other Doesnt: Technology and Science in Politics;304
7.4.5; The Progressive's Dilemma;306
7.4.6;References;311
7.5;The Political Economy of Technoscience;312
7.5.1; Introduction: On Conservation and Innovation;312
7.5.2; Principles for Economic and Scientific Knowledge;315
7.5.3; The Blue Planet -- an Ambivalent Icon;317
7.5.4; What Does Earth Do with the Energy It Receives?;318
7.5.5; From ``Obedience'' to ``Transgression'';321
7.5.6; The Power in the Earth;322
7.5.7; Exceeding the Limits to Growth;325
7.5.8; Conclusion;328
7.5.9;References;329
7.6;Science, the Public and the Media -- Views from Everywhere;332
7.6.1; Relationships Between Science and the Public;332
7.6.2; Science in the Perception of the Public;333
7.6.3; The Public in the Perception of Science;338
7.6.4; Will Science Be Medialized?;340
7.6.5;References;342
8;Part V Science, Values and Society: Freedom of Research and Social Accountability;344
8.1;Conditions of Science: The Three-Way Tension of Freedom, Accountability and Utility;345
8.1.1; Getting the Best Out of Scientific Research: An Argumentative Map;345
8.1.1.1; Arguments for Freedom of Research;346
8.1.1.2; Arguments for Accountability;348
8.1.1.3; Arguments for Targeted Research;350
8.1.2; Dealing with the Three-Way Tension: Strategies in Science Policy;352
8.1.2.1; First Strategy: The Policy of Non-Policy (''Blind Delegation'');352
8.1.2.2; Second Strategy: Interlaced Self-Regulation;353
8.1.2.3; Third Strategy: Science Legislation (''Blunt Regulation'');356
8.1.3; Deliberating on the Tensions;357
8.1.4;References;361
8.2;Integrating the Ethical into Scientific Rationality;365
8.2.1; A Glance at the Past;366
8.2.2; Challenges of the Present;368
8.2.3; Hopes for the Future;371
8.2.4; Lessons from Lysenko;373
8.2.5; Nazi Science;376
8.2.6; The Moral;377
8.2.7;References;378
9;Part VI Science, Values and Society: Historical Transformations;381
9.1;What Makes Computer Science a Science?;382
9.1.1; What Is the Question? Paderborn 2000;382
9.1.2; How Theoretical Computer Science Became a Mathematical Discipline;387
9.1.3; How Software Engineering Did Not Become an Engineering Discipline;392
9.1.4; Reflections in Recent Discussions Among Software Engineers;396
9.1.5; What Might a Science of Software Look Like? Would It Be a Theorie der Informatik?;398
9.1.6;References;400
9.2;Black-Boxing Organisms, Exploiting the Unpredictable: Control Paradigms in Human--Machine Translations;402
9.2.1; Introduction;402
9.2.2; System, Black Box, Information & Code: New Ontologies and Processes of Translation;404
9.2.3; Holistic Approaches, The Promises of Analogy and Transdisciplinarity;408
9.2.4; Symbol-Processing AI, Philosophy and Behavior-Based Robotics;410
9.2.5; Biological Machines: Autonomy, Adaptation and Trial and Error;414
9.2.6; On the Devil of Disorder and the Angel of Noise;416
9.2.7;References;419
9.3;An Epoch-Making Change in the Development of Science? A Critique of the ``Epochal-Break-Thesis'';423
9.3.1; Introduction;423
9.3.2; Assertions of Current Epochal Changes and the Problem of Their Conceptual Definition;424
9.3.2.1; Mode 2;424
9.3.2.2; Post-normal Science;426
9.3.2.3; Triple Helix;427
9.3.2.4; Postmodern Primacy of Technology;429
9.3.2.5; Second Modernity and Knowledge Society;431
9.3.3; The Concept of an Epochal Change in the Development of Science;432
9.3.4; Candidates for the Status of Epochal Transformations in the Recent Development of the Sciences;437
9.3.4.1; Science and Technology;438
9.3.4.2; Science, the State and Industry;439
9.3.4.3; Science and the Public Domain;440
9.3.5; Conclusion;442
9.3.6;References;443
9.4;Everything New Is Old Again: What Place Should Applied Science Have in the History of Science?;446
9.4.1; Roman Engineering;451
9.4.2; Enlightenment Navigational Science;452
9.4.3; The Invention of Pure Science;453
9.4.4; The Un-Doing of I. Bernard Cohen;454
9.4.5; Conclusion;456
9.4.6;References;456
9.5;Science in the Context of Technology;458
9.5.1; What Is the Meaning of Technoscience?;460
9.5.2; Epochal Break Arguments;462
9.5.3; Epochal Break and Philosophy of Technoscience;466
9.5.3.1; Juxtapositions;466
9.5.3.2; Spaces of Possibility;468
9.5.4; Conclusion;470
9.5.5;References;472
10;Index;474