Brown Physical Test Methods for Elastomers

1. Auflage 2018
ISBN: 978-3-319-66727-0
Verlag: Springer Nature Switzerland
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 381 Seiten

This book provides comprehensive coverage of all aspects of physical testing of elastomers (rubbers and thermoplastic elastomers) including mechanical, electrical, thermal and all aspects of durability. Elastomers are an important class of materials used in such products as tyres, seals and hose which have markedly different properties to other materials. The importance of testing of elastomers means that a comprehensive text on the subject is essential. The advantage over general materials testing books is being more specific while the advantage over general rubber technology books is that testing is dealt with in depth.

Roger Brown is an internationally acknowledged expert on physical testing and quality assurance of polymers and has published more than 70 technical papers and several books on testing subjects. He was responsible for Rapra's testing laboratories and services for 25 years and is editor of the journal Polymer Testing. He is active in many standards committees and is leader of the British delegation to ISO Technical Committee 45. Roger and his wife Yoland have opened their garden at Brownhill House for the National Garden Scheme for 33 years. They also enjoy driving their 4 kit cars.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Brown, Roger

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Contents;7
3;Part I: Before You Test;15
3.1;Chapter 1: Introduction;16
3.1.1;1.1 Scope and Content;16
3.1.2;References;20
3.2;Chapter 2: General Considerations;21
3.2.1;2.1 Philosophy;21
3.2.2;2.2 Test Piece History;24
3.2.3;2.3 Test Conditions;25
3.2.4;2.4 Statistics;26
3.2.5;2.5 Sampling;27
3.2.6;2.6 Limitations of Results;29
3.2.7;2.7 Quality Systems;29
3.2.8;2.8 Test Equipment;33
3.2.9;2.9 Thermoplastic Elastomers;34
3.2.10;2.10 Product Testing;35
3.2.11;References;37
3.3;Chapter 3: Standards;39
3.3.1;3.1 Standards;39
3.3.1.1;3.1.1 Types of Standard;39
3.3.1.2;3.1.2 Test Methods;40
3.3.2;3.2 Organisations Producing Standards;42
3.3.2.1;3.2.1 Sources of Standards;42
3.3.2.2;3.2.2 International Standards;42
3.3.2.2.1;3.2.2.1 The International Organisation for Standardisation;42
3.3.2.2.2;3.2.2.2 Other International Standards;45
3.3.2.2.3;3.2.2.3 European Standards;46
3.3.2.3;3.2.3 National Standards;46
3.3.2.3.1;3.2.3.1 General;46
3.3.2.3.2;3.2.3.2 The British Standards Institution;47
3.3.2.3.3;3.2.3.3 Other British Standards;48
3.3.2.3.4;3.2.3.4 USA Standards;48
3.3.2.4;3.2.4 Company Standards;49
3.3.3;3.3 Units;50
3.3.4;References;50
3.4;Chapter 4: Conditioning and Test Atmospheres;52
3.4.1;4.1 Introduction;52
3.4.2;4.2 Storage;52
3.4.3;4.3 Conditioning;53
3.4.4;4.4 Test Conditions;55
3.4.5;4.5 Apparatus for Conditioning;56
3.4.5.1;4.5.1 Air Conditioned Rooms;56
3.4.5.2;4.5.2 Enclosures;57
3.4.5.3;4.5.3 Hygrometers;57
3.4.5.4;4.5.4 Thermometers;58
3.4.5.5;4.5.5 Apparatus for Elevated and Subnormal Temperatures;58
3.4.6;4.6 Mechanical Conditioning;59
3.4.7;References;61
4;Part II: Processing and Preparation for Test;63
4.1;Chapter 5: Processability;64
4.1.1;5.1 Introduction;64
4.1.2;5.2 Standard Methods for Particular Polymers;65
4.1.3;5.3 Sample Preparation;65
4.1.4;5.4 Viscoelastic Flow Behaviour;66
4.1.4.1;5.4.1 Introduction;66
4.1.4.2;5.4.2 Compression Plastimeters;68
4.1.4.3;5.4.3 Plasticity Retention Index;71
4.1.4.4;5.4.4 Rotation Plastimeters;72
4.1.4.5;5.4.5 Extrusion Rheometers;76
4.1.4.6;5.4.6 Mixing Machines;77
4.1.4.7;5.4.7 Other Processability Tests;78
4.1.4.8;5.4.8 Correlation Between Plastimeters;79
4.1.5;5.5 Scorch and Cure Rate;81
4.1.5.1;5.5.1 Introduction;81
4.1.5.2;5.5.2 Types of Curemeter;82
4.1.5.3;5.5.3 Extended Use of Curemeter Type Instruments;86
4.1.5.4;5.5.4 Alternative Methods;87
4.1.6;5.6 Tack;87
4.1.7;5.7 Other Tests;88
4.1.8;References;89
4.2;Chapter 6: Preparation of Test Pieces;93
4.2.1;6.1 Introduction;93
4.2.2;6.2 Mixing and Moulding;93
4.2.3;6.3 Cutting from Sheet;96
4.2.4;6.4 Test Pieces from Finished Products;98
4.2.5;References;100
4.3;Chapter 7: Mass, Density and Dimensions;101
4.3.1;7.1 Introduction;101
4.3.2;7.2 Mass;102
4.3.3;7.3 Density;102
4.3.4;7.4 Dimensions;105
4.3.4.1;7.4.1 Dimensions Needed;105
4.3.4.2;7.4.2 Standard Methods;105
4.3.4.3;7.4.3 Non-standard Methods;107
4.3.4.4;7.4.4 Surface Roughness;108
4.3.4.5;7.4.5 Extensometry;108
4.3.4.6;7.4.6 Dimensional Stability;109
4.3.4.7;7.4.7 Dispersion;109
4.3.5;References;112
5;Part III: Short Term Mechanical Properties;114
5.1;Chapter 8: Stress and Strain Data;115
5.1.1;8.1 Introduction;115
5.1.2;8.2 Stress/Strain Relationships;116
5.1.3;8.3 Poisson´s Ratio;120
5.1.4;8.4 Data for Finite Element Analysis;120
5.1.5;References;123
5.2;Chapter 9: Hardness;125
5.2.1;9.1 What Is Hardness?;125
5.2.2;9.2 Introduction to Rubber Hardness Tests;126
5.2.3;9.3 Dead Load Tests;128
5.2.3.1;9.3.1 IRHD Method, Normal Scale;128
5.2.3.2;9.3.2 High and Low Scales;130
5.2.3.3;9.3.3 Micro Tests;130
5.2.3.4;9.3.4 Apparent Hardness;132
5.2.3.5;9.3.5 British and ASTM standards;133
5.2.4;9.4 Durometer Tests;134
5.2.5;9.5 Nano and Dynamic Methods;137
5.2.6;9.6 Accuracy and Comparison of Hardness Tests;137
5.2.7;9.7 Use of Hardness Tests;140
5.2.8;References;140
5.3;Chapter 10: Tension;142
5.3.1;10.1 Introduction;142
5.3.2;10.2 Form of Test Piece;143
5.3.3;10.3 Measurement of Test Pieces;146
5.3.4;10.4 Apparatus;147
5.3.4.1;10.4.1 Tensile Machine;147
5.3.4.2;10.4.2 Grips;148
5.3.4.3;10.4.3 Application of Force;148
5.3.4.4;10.4.4 Force Measurement;150
5.3.4.5;10.4.5 Elongation Measurement;150
5.3.5;10.5 Calculation and Expression of Results;154
5.3.6;10.6 Relaxed Modulus;156
5.3.7;10.7 Biaxial Extension;156
5.3.8;References;158
5.4;Chapter 11: Compression;160
5.4.1;11.1 Introduction;160
5.4.2;11.2 Test Methods;163
5.4.3;11.3 Bulk Compression;164
5.4.4;References;165
5.5;Chapter 12: Shear and Flexure;166
5.5.1;12.1 Introduction;166
5.5.2;12.2 Simple Shear;166
5.5.3;12.3 Pure Shear;168
5.5.4;12.4 Torsion;169
5.5.5;12.5 Flexure;170
5.5.6;References;170
5.6;Chapter 13: Tear;171
5.6.1;13.1 Introduction;171
5.6.2;13.2 Forms of Test Piece;172
5.6.3;13.3 Preparation of Test Pieces;174
5.6.4;13.4 Measurement of Tearing Force;174
5.6.5;13.5 Expression of Results;176
5.6.6;13.6 Fracture Mechanics Approach;177
5.6.7;13.7 Cutting Resistance;179
5.6.8;References;180
6;Part IV: Time Dependent Properties;181
6.1;Chapter 14: Dynamic Stress and Strain;182
6.1.1;14.1 Principles of Dynamic Tests;182
6.1.2;14.2 Rebound Resilience;189
6.1.2.1;14.2.1 Principle;189
6.1.2.2;14.2.2 Pendulum Methods;190
6.1.2.3;14.2.3 Falling Weight Methods;192
6.1.3;14.3 Free Vibration Methods;193
6.1.3.1;14.3.1 Introduction;193
6.1.3.2;14.3.2 Yerzley Oscillograph;194
6.1.3.3;14.3.3 Torsion Pendulum;195
6.1.4;14.4 Forced Vibration Methods;198
6.1.4.1;14.4.1 Introduction;198
6.1.4.2;14.4.2 Brief Review of Forced Vibration Apparatus;199
6.1.4.3;14.4.3 Standard Methods;203
6.1.5;14.5 Comparison of Dynamic Methods;203
6.1.6;References;205
6.2;Chapter 15: Creep, Relaxation and Set;207
6.2.1;15.1 Introduction;207
6.2.2;15.2 Creep;208
6.2.3;15.3 Stress Relaxation;210
6.2.3.1;15.3.1 Introduction;210
6.2.3.2;15.3.2 Standard Methods in Compression;211
6.2.3.3;15.3.3 Apparatus;214
6.2.3.4;15.3.4 Use of Stress Relaxation Data;216
6.2.4;15.4 Set;217
6.2.4.1;15.4.1 Principle;217
6.2.4.2;15.4.2 Tests in Compression;219
6.2.4.3;15.4.3 Tests in Tension;220
6.2.5;References;222
7;Part V: Physical Properties;224
7.1;Chapter 16: Electrical Properties;225
7.1.1;16.1 Introduction;225
7.1.2;16.2 Resistance and Resistivity;226
7.1.2.1;16.2.1 General;226
7.1.2.2;16.2.2 Tests on Insulating Rubbers;227
7.1.2.3;16.2.3 Tests on Conducting and Anti-static Rubbers;231
7.1.3;16.3 Surface Charge;234
7.1.4;16.4 Electric Strength;235
7.1.5;16.5 Tracking Resistance;236
7.1.6;16.6 Permittivity and Power Factor;236
7.1.7;References;238
7.2;Chapter 17: Thermal Properties;241
7.2.1;17.1 Introduction;241
7.2.2;17.2 Thermal Analysis;242
7.2.3;17.3 Specific Heat;243
7.2.4;17.4 Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity;244
7.2.4.1;17.4.1 Introduction;244
7.2.4.2;17.4.2 Thermal Conductivity;245
7.2.4.3;17.4.3 Thermal Diffusivity;248
7.2.5;17.5 Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient;249
7.2.6;References;249
7.3;Chapter 18: Permeability;252
7.3.1;18.1 Basic Theory;252
7.3.2;18.2 Gas Permeability;254
7.3.2.1;18.2.1 General;254
7.3.2.2;18.2.2 Differential Pressure Methods;254
7.3.2.3;18.2.3 Equal Pressure Methods;256
7.3.2.4;18.2.4 High Pressure Measurements;258
7.3.3;18.3 Vapour Permeability;258
7.3.4;References;261
8;Part VI: Durability;264
8.1;Chapter 19: Friction and Abrasion;265
8.1.1;19.1 Introduction;265
8.1.2;19.2 Friction;265
8.1.2.1;19.2.1 Factors Affecting Friction;265
8.1.2.2;19.2.2 Methods of Measuring Friction;268
8.1.2.3;19.2.3 Standard Methods;271
8.1.3;19.3 Wear;272
8.1.3.1;19.3.1 General;272
8.1.3.2;19.3.2 Wear Mechanisms;273
8.1.3.3;19.3.3 Types of Abrasion Test;274
8.1.3.4;19.3.4 Abradants;276
8.1.3.5;19.3.5 Test Conditions;276
8.1.3.6;19.3.6 Expression of Results and Standard Rubbers;278
8.1.3.7;19.3.7 Test Apparatus;279
8.1.3.8;19.3.8 Comparison of Methods;284
8.1.4;References;285
8.2;Chapter 20: Fatigue;288
8.2.1;20.1 Introduction;288
8.2.2;20.2 Flex-Cracking and Cut-Growth Tests;289
8.2.2.1;20.2.1 General;289
8.2.2.2;20.2.2 Flexing Methods;289
8.2.2.3;20.2.3 Tests in Tension;292
8.2.2.4;20.2.4 Tests in Shear;295
8.2.2.5;20.2.5 Other Tests;296
8.2.3;20.3 Heat Build-Up;297
8.2.4;References;299
8.3;Chapter 21: Effect of Temperature;301
8.3.1;21.1 Introduction;301
8.3.2;21.2 Thermal Expansion;302
8.3.3;21.3 Transition Temperature;303
8.3.4;21.4 Low Temperature Tests;304
8.3.4.1;21.4.1 General;304
8.3.4.2;21.4.2 Recovery Tests;305
8.3.4.3;21.4.3 Change in Stiffness;307
8.3.4.4;21.4.4 Brittleness Temperature;309
8.3.4.5;21.4.5 Comparison of Methods;311
8.3.4.6;21.4.6 Crystallisation;312
8.3.5;21.5 Heat Ageing;313
8.3.5.1;21.5.1 General;313
8.3.5.2;21.5.2 Standard Exposure Tests;314
8.3.5.3;21.5.3 Monitoring Degradation;316
8.3.5.4;21.5.4 Stress Relaxation;317
8.3.5.5;21.5.5 Correlation with Natural Ageing;319
8.3.6;References;325
8.4;Chapter 22: Effect of Environment;328
8.4.1;22.1 Introduction;328
8.4.2;22.2 Moist Heat and Steam Tests;328
8.4.3;22.3 Effect of Liquids;329
8.4.3.1;22.3.1 General;329
8.4.3.2;22.3.2 Standard Methods;330
8.4.3.3;22.3.3 Standard Liquids;334
8.4.3.4;22.3.4 Non-standard Methods;335
8.4.3.5;22.3.5 Water Absorption;336
8.4.4;22.4 Effect of Gases (Other than Ozone);337
8.4.5;22.5 Effect of Ozone;337
8.4.5.1;22.5.1 General;337
8.4.5.2;22.5.2 Ozone Cabinet;338
8.4.5.3;22.5.3 Measurement of Ozone Concentration;340
8.4.5.4;22.5.4 Test Piece;341
8.4.5.5;22.5.5 Conditioning;343
8.4.5.6;22.5.6 Test Conditions;343
8.4.5.7;22.5.7 Test Procedure;344
8.4.5.8;22.5.8 Expression of Results;345
8.4.5.9;22.5.9 Dynamic Ozone Results;347
8.4.5.10;22.5.10 Stress Relaxation;347
8.4.6;22.6 Weathering;348
8.4.7;22.7 Biological Attack;351
8.4.8;22.8 Fire;352
8.4.9;22.9 Radiation;353
8.4.10;References;354
9;Part VII: Interaction with Other Materials;358
9.1;Chapter 23: Adhesion;359
9.1.1;23.1 Introduction;359
9.1.2;23.2 Adhesion to Metals;359
9.1.2.1;23.2.1 General;359
9.1.2.2;23.2.2 Standard Methods;361
9.1.2.2.1;23.2.2.1 Peel Tests;361
9.1.2.2.2;23.2.2.2 Tension Tests;362
9.1.2.2.3;23.2.2.3 Shear Tests;363
9.1.2.3;23.2.3 Other Methods;364
9.1.2.4;23.2.4 Non-destructive Tests;365
9.1.3;23.3 Adhesion to Fabrics;366
9.1.3.1;23.3.1 General;366
9.1.3.2;23.3.2 Peel Tests;366
9.1.3.3;23.3.3 Direct Tension Tests;368
9.1.3.4;23.3.4 Dynamic Tests;369
9.1.4;23.4 Adhesion to Cord;369
9.1.5;References;371
9.2;Chapter 24: Corrosion and Staining;373
9.2.1;24.1 Corrosion of and Adhesion to Metals;373
9.2.2;24.2 Staining;374
9.2.2.1;24.2.1 General;374
9.2.2.2;24.2.2 Definitions;374
9.2.2.3;24.2.3 ISO Procedure;375
9.2.2.4;24.2.4 Assessment of Staining;376
9.2.2.5;24.2.5 Other Standards;376
9.2.3;References;376
10;Index;377