Bimberg Semiconductor Nanostructures

1. Auflage 2008
ISBN: 978-3-540-77899-8
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 357 Seiten

Reihe: NanoScience and Technology

Reducing the size of a coherently grown semiconductor cluster in all three directions of space to a value below the de Broglie wavelength of a charge carrier leads to complete quantization of the energy levels, density of states, etc. Such 'quantum dots' are more similar to giant atoms in a dielectric cage than to classical solids or semiconductors showing a dispersion of energy as a function of wavevector. Their electronic and optical properties depend strongly on their size and shape, i.e. on their geometry. By designing the geometry by controlling the growth of QDs, absolutely novel possibilities for material design leading to novel devices are opened. This multiauthor book written by world-wide recognized leaders of their particular fields and edited by the recipient of the Max-Born Award and Medal 2006 Professor Dieter Bimberg reports on the state of the art of the growing of quantum dots, the theory of self-organised growth, the theory of electronic and excitonic states, optical properties and transport in a variety of materials. It covers the subject from the early work beginning of the 1990s up to 2006. The topics addressed in the book are the focus of research in all leading semiconductor and optoelectronic device laboratories of the world.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Bimberg, Dieter

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
1.1;References;8
2;Contents;10
3;List of Contributors;18
4;1 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Quantum Dot Growth;23
4.1;1.1 Introduction;24
4.1.1;1.1.1 Length and Time Scales;25
4.1.2;1.1.2 Multiscale Approach to the Modeling of Nanostructures;26
4.2;1.2 Atomistic Aspects of Growth;27
4.2.1;1.2.1 Diffusion of Ga Atoms on GaAs(001);27
4.2.2;1.2.2 Energetics of As2 Incorporation During Growth;27
4.2.3;1.2.3 Kinetic Monte Carlo Simulation of GaAs Homoepitaxy;28
4.2.4;1.2.4 Wetting Layer Evolution;31
4.3;1.3 Size and Shapes of Individual Quantum Dots;33
4.3.1;1.3.1 Hybrid Approach to Calculation of the Equilibrium Shape of Individual Quantum Dots;33
4.3.2;1.3.2 Role of High-Index Facets in the Shape of Quantum Dots;35
4.3.3;1.3.3 Shape Transition During Quantum Dot Growth;36
4.3.4;1.3.4 Constraint Equilibrium of Quantum Dots with aWetting Layer;37
4.4;1.4 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Quantum Dot Ensembles;41
4.4.1;1.4.1 Equilibrium Volume of Strained Islands versus Ostwald Ripening;41
4.4.2;1.4.2 Crossover from Kinetically Controlled to Thermodynamically Controlled Growth of Quantum Dots;44
4.4.3;1.4.3 Tunable Metastability of Quantum Dot Arrays;47
4.4.4;1.4.4 Evolution Mechanisms in Dense Arrays of Elastically Interacting Quantum Dots;49
4.5;1.5 Quantum Dot Stacks;51
4.5.1;1.5.1 Transition between Vertically Correlated and Vertically Anticorrelated Quantum Dot Growth;51
4.5.2;1.5.2 Finite Size Effect: Abrupt Transitions between Correlated and Anticorrelated Growth;53
4.5.3;1.5.3 Reduction of a Size of a Critical Nucleus in the Second Quantum Dot Layer;54
4.6;1.6 Summary and Outlook;56
4.7;References;57
5;2 Control of Self-Organized In(Ga)As/GaAs Quantum Dot Growth;63
5.1;2.1 Introduction;63
5.2;2.2 Evolution and Strain Engineering of InGaAs/GaAs Quantum Dots;64
5.2.1;2.2.1 Evolution of InGaAs Dots;64
5.2.2;2.2.2 Engineering of Single and Stacked InGaAs QD Layers Single InGaAs QD Layers;68
5.3;2.3 Growth Control of Equally Shaped InAs/GaAs Quantum Dots;72
5.3.1;2.3.1 Formation of Self-Similar Dots with a Multimodal Size Distribution;73
5.3.2;2.3.2 Kinetic Description of Multimodal Dot-Ensemble Formation;76
5.4;2.4 Epitaxy of GaSb/GaAs Quantum Dots;78
5.4.1;2.4.1 Onset and Dynamics of GaSb/GaAs Quantum-Dot Formation;78
5.4.2;2.4.2 Structure of GaSb/GaAs Quantum Dots;80
5.5;2.5 Device Applications of InGaAs Quantum Dots;82
5.5.1;2.5.1 Edge-Emitting Lasers;82
5.5.2;2.5.2 Surface-Emitting Lasers;83
5.6;2.6 Conclusion;84
5.7;References;85
6;3 In-Situ Monitoring for Nano-Structure Growth in MOVPE;89
6.1;3.1 Introduction;89
6.2;3.2 Reflectance;91
6.3;3.3 Reflectance Anisotropy Spectroscopy (RAS);93
6.3.1;3.3.1 RAS Spectra and Surface Reconstruction;94
6.3.2;3.3.2 Monolayer Oscillations;96
6.3.3;3.3.3 Monitoring of Carrier Concentration;101
6.4;3.4 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM);104
6.5;3.5 Conclusion;106
6.6;References;107
7;4 Bottom-up Approach to the Nanopatterning of Si(001);109
7.1;4.1 Quantum Dot Growth on Semiconductor Templates;109
7.2;4.2 (2 × n) Reconstruction of Si(001);110
7.3;4.3 Monte Carlo Simulations on the (2 × n) Formation;112
7.4;4.4 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Results;114
7.5;4.5 Summary and Outlook;116
7.5.1;Acknowledgements;117
7.6;References;117
8;5 Structural Characterisation of Quantum Dots by X- Ray Diffraction and TEM;119
8.1;5.1 Introduction;119
8.2;5.2 Liquid Phase Epitaxy of SiGe/Si: A Model System for the Stranski - Krastanow Process;121
8.2.1;5.2.1 Dot Evolution in a Close-to-Equilibrium Regime;121
8.3;5.3 (In,Ga)As Quantum Dots on GaAs;125
8.3.1;5.3.1 Shape, Size, Strain and Composition Gradient in InGaAs QD Arrays;125
8.3.2;5.3.2 Chemical Composition of (In,Ga)As QDs Determined by TEM;129
8.3.3;5.3.3 Controlling 3D Ordering in (In,Ga)As QD Arrays through GaAs Surface Orientation;131
8.4;5.4 Ga(Sb,As) Quantum Dots on GaAs;135
8.4.1;5.4.1 Structural Characterisation of Ga(Sb,As) QDs by High-Resolution TEM Imaging;139
8.4.2;5.4.2 Chemical Characterisation of Ga(Sb,As) QDs by HAADF STEM Imaging;140
8.5;References;141
9;6 The Atomic Structure of Quantum Dots;145
9.1;6.1 Introduction;145
9.2;6.2 Experimental Details;146
9.3;6.3 STM Studies of InAs Quantum Dots on the Growth Surface;146
9.4;6.4 XSTM Studies of Buried Nanostructures;149
9.4.1;6.4.1 InAs Quantum Dots;149
9.4.2;6.4.2 InGaAs Quantum Dots;153
9.4.3;6.4.3 GaSb Quantum Dots;156
9.5;6.5 Conclusion;157
9.5.1;Acknowledgements;157
9.6;References;158
10;7 Theory of Excitons in InGaAs/GaAs Quantum Dots;161
10.1;7.1 Introduction;161
10.2;7.2 Interrelation of QD-Structure, Strain and Piezoelectricity, and Coulomb Interaction;162
10.2.1;7.2.1 The Binding Energies of the Few Particle Complexes;162
10.3;7.3 Method of Calculation;165
10.3.1;7.3.1 Calculation of Strain;166
10.3.2;7.3.2 Piezoelectricity and the Reduction of Lateral Symmetry;167
10.3.3;7.3.3 Single Particle States;169
10.3.4;7.3.4 Many-Particle States;170
10.3.5;7.3.5 The Configuration Interaction Model;170
10.3.6;7.3.6 Interband Spectra;172
10.4;7.4 The Investigated Structures: Variation of Size, Shape and Composition;172
10.5;7.5 The Impact of QD Size;173
10.5.1;7.5.1 The Role of the Piezoelectric Field;175
10.6;7.6 The Aspect Ratio;177
10.6.1;7.6.1 Vertical Aspect Ratio Different Types of Charge Separation Effects;177
10.6.2;7.6.2 Lateral Aspect Ratio;179
10.7;7.7 Different Composition Profiles;179
10.7.1;7.7.1 Inverted Cone-Like Composition Profile;179
10.7.2;7.7.2 Annealed QDs;181
10.7.3;7.7.3 InGaAs QDs with Uniform Composition;181
10.8;7.8 Correlation vs. QD Size, Shape and Particle Type;181
10.9;7.9 Conclusions;184
10.10;References;185
11;8 Phonons in Quantum Dots and Their Role in Exciton Dephasing;187
11.1;8.1 Introduction;187
11.2;8.2 Structural Properties of Semiconductor Nanostructures;188
11.3;8.3 Theory of Acoustic Phonons in Quantum Dots;188
11.3.1;8.3.1 Continuum Elasticity Model of Phonons;189
11.3.2;8.3.2 Phonons in Quantum Dots;192
11.4;8.4 Exciton-Acoustic Phonon Coupling in Quantum Dots;193
11.5;8.5 Dephasing of the Exciton Polarization in Quantum Dots;195
11.5.1;8.5.1 Single Exciton Level: Independent Boson Model;196
11.5.2;8.5.2 Multilevel System: Real and Virtual Phonon-Assisted Transitions;198
11.5.3;8.5.3 Application to Coupled Quantum Dots;204
11.6;8.6 Summary;206
11.7;References;207
12;9 Theory of the Optical Response of Single and Coupled Semiconductor Quantum Dots;211
12.1;9.1 Introduction;211
12.2;9.2 Theory;212
12.2.1;9.2.1 Quantum Dot Model;212
12.2.2;9.2.2 Hamiltonian;213
12.2.3;9.2.3 Mathematical Formalisms;215
12.3;9.3 Single Quantum Dot Response;218
12.3.1;9.3.1 Linear Absorption Spectra and Quantum Optics;218
12.3.2;9.3.2 Semiclassical Nonlinear Dynamics;221
12.4;9.4 Two Coupled Quantum Dots;223
12.4.1;9.4.1 Absorption Spectra;224
12.4.2;9.4.2 Excitation Transfer;224
12.4.3;9.4.3 Rabi Oscillations;225
12.4.4;9.4.4 Pump-Probe/Differential Transmission Spectra;226
12.5;9.5 Multiple Quantum Dots;227
12.5.1;9.5.1 Four-Wave-Mixing: Photon Echo in Quantum Dot Ensembles;227
12.5.2;9.5.2 Absorption of Multiple Coupled Quantum Dots;227
12.5.3;9.5.3 Energy Transfer of Multiple Coupled Quantum Dots;228
12.6;9.6 Conclusion;228
12.6.1;Acknowledgements;229
12.7;References;229
13;10 Theory of Nonlinear Transport for Ensembles of Quantum Dots;233
13.1;10.1 Introduction;233
13.2;10.2 Coulomb Interaction within a Quantum Dot Layer;233
13.3;10.3 Transport in Quantum Dot Stacks;235
13.4;10.4 Current Fluctuations and Shot Noise;236
13.5;10.5 Full Counting Statistics and Decoherence in Coupled Quantum Dots;238
13.6;10.6 Conclusion;240
13.7;References;241
14;11 Quantum Dots for Memories;243
14.1;11.1 Introduction;243
14.2;11.2 Semiconductor Memories;244
14.2.1;11.2.1 Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM);244
14.2.2;11.2.2 Nonvolatile Semiconductor Memories (Flash);245
14.2.3;11.2.3 A QD-based Memory Cell;246
14.3;11.3 Charge Carrier Storage in Quantum Dots;248
14.3.1;11.3.1 Experimental Technique;248
14.3.2;11.3.2 Carrier Storage in InGaAs/GaAs Quantum Dots;250
14.3.3;11.3.3 Hole Storage in GaSb/GaAs Quantum Dots;251
14.3.4;11.3.4 InGaAs/GaAs Quantum Dots with Additional AlGaAs Barrier;252
14.4;11.4 Conclusion and Outlook;255
14.4.1;Acknowledgements;256
14.5;References;257
15;12 Visible-Bandgap II-VI Quantum Dot Heterostructures;259
15.1;12.1 Introduction;259
15.2;12.2 Epitaxial Growth;260
15.3;12.3 Few-Particles States and Their Fine Structure;263
15.3.1;12.3.1 Excitons and Biexcitons;263
15.3.2;12.3.2 Trions in Charged Quantum Dots;265
15.4;12.4 Coherent Control of the ExcitonÒBiexciton System;267
15.5;12.5 Spin Relaxation of Excitons, Holes, and Electrons;269
15.5.1;12.5.1 Exciton Quantum Coherence;269
15.5.2;12.5.2 Hole Spin Lifetime;270
15.5.3;12.5.3 Spin Dynamics of the Resident Electron;271
15.6;12.6 Diluted Magnetic Quantum Dots;273
15.7;Acknowledgements;275
15.8;References;275
16;13 Narrow-Gap Nanostructures in Strong Magnetic Fields;277
16.1;13.1 Introduction;277
16.2;13.2 Materials: HgSe/HgSe:Fe;278
16.3;13.3 Fabrication of HgSe/HgSe:Fe Nanostructures;278
16.3.1;13.3.1 QuantumWells;279
16.3.2;13.3.2 Roof-Ridge QuantumWires;280
16.3.3;13.3.3 Quantum Dots;281
16.4;13.4 Electronic Characterization of the HgSe/HgSe:Fe Nano- Structures in Strong Magnetic Fields;284
16.4.1;13.4.1 High-Field Magneto Transport;284
16.4.2;13.4.2 Infrared Magneto-Resonance Spectroscopy;285
16.5;13.5 Summary;289
16.6;References;289
17;14 Optical Properties of III-V Quantum Dots;291
17.1;14.1 Introduction;291
17.2;14.2 Confined States and Many-Particle Effects;292
17.2.1;14.2.1 Renormalization;292
17.2.2;14.2.2 Phonon Interaction;296
17.2.3;14.2.3 Electronic Tuning by Strain Engineering;298
17.2.4;14.2.4 Multimodal InAs/GaAs Quantum Dots;300
17.3;14.3 Single InAs/GaAs Quantum Dots;303
17.3.1;14.3.1 Spectral Diffusion;303
17.3.2;14.3.2 Size-Dependent Anisotropic Exchange Interaction;304
17.3.3;14.3.3 Binding Energies of Excitonic Complexes;307
17.3.4;14.3.4 Data Storage Using Confined Trions;308
17.3.5;14.3.5 Electronic Tuning by Annealing;309
17.4;14.4 Optical Properties of InGaN/GaN Quantum Dots;310
17.4.1;14.4.1 Time-Resolved Studies on Quantum Dot Ensembles;311
17.4.2;14.4.2 Single-Dot Spectroscopy;314
17.5;14.5 Summary;318
17.6;References;320
18;15 Ultrafast Coherent Spectroscopy of Single Semiconductor Quantum Dots;323
18.1;15.1 Introduction;323
18.2;15.2 Interface Quantum Dots;325
18.3;15.3 Coherent Spectroscopy of Interface Quantum Dots: Experimental Technique;327
18.4;15.4 Coherent Control in Single Interface Quantum Dots;330
18.4.1;15.4.1 Ultrafast Optical Nonlinearities of Single Interface Quantum Dots;330
18.4.2;15.4.2 Rabi Oscillations in a Quantum Dot;334
18.4.3;15.4.3 Optical Stark Effect: Ultrafast Control of Single Exciton Polarizations;337
18.5;15.5 Coupling Two Quantum Dots via the Dipole-Dipole Interaction;341
18.6;15.6 Summary and Conclusions;345
18.7;Acknowledgment;346
18.8;References;347
19;16 Single-Photon Generation from Single Quantum Dots;351
19.1;16.1 Introduction;351
19.2;16.2 Single Quantum Dots as Single-Photon Emitters;353
19.2.1;16.2.1 Photon Statistics of Single-Photon Emitters;353
19.2.2;16.2.2 Micro-Photoluminescence;354
19.2.3;16.2.3 Single Photons from InP Quantum Dots;355
19.3;16.3 Multiphoton Emission from Single Quantum Dots;356
19.4;16.4 Realization of the Ultimate Limit of a Light Emitting Diode;361
19.5;16.5 Applications in Quantum Information Processing;365
19.5.1;16.5.1 Quantum Key Distribution;365
19.5.2;16.5.2 Quantum Computing;366
19.6;16.6 Outlook;368
19.7;References;369
20;Index;373