Bhushan Scanning Probe Microscopy in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-03535-7
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 974 Seiten

Reihe: NanoScience and Technology

This book presents the physical and technical foundation of the state-of-the-art in applied scanning probe techniques. It constitutes a comprehensive overview of SPM applications. The chapters are written by leading researchers and application scientists.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Bhushan, Bharat

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Scanning Probe Microscopy in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology;4
1.1;Part I Scanning Probe Microscopy Techniques;32
1.1.1;1 Dynamic Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy Using the Frequency-Modulation Technique in Air and Liquids;33
1.1.1.1;1.1 Introduction;33
1.1.1.2;1.2 Basic Principles of the FM Technique;34
1.1.1.2.1;1.2.1 The Equation of Motion;34
1.1.1.2.2;1.2.2 Oscillation Behavior of a Self-Driven Cantilever;36
1.1.1.2.3;1.2.3 Theory of FM Mode Including Tip–Sample Forces;37
1.1.1.2.4;1.2.4 Measuring the Tip–Sample Interaction Force;39
1.1.1.2.5;1.2.5 Experimental Comparison of the FM Mode with the Conventional Amplitude-Modulation-mode in Air;41
1.1.1.3;1.3 Mapping of the Tip–Sample Interactions on DPPC Monolayers in Ambient Conditions;42
1.1.1.4;1.4 Force Spectroscopy of Single Dextran Monomers in Liquid;45
1.1.1.5;1.5 Summary;48
1.1.1.5.1;Acknowledgements;49
1.1.1.6;References;49
1.1.2;2 Photonic Force Microscopy: From Femtonewton Force Sensing to Ultra-Sensitive Spectroscopy;52
1.1.2.1;2.1 Introduction;53
1.1.2.2;2.2 Principles of Optical Trapping;53
1.1.2.2.1;2.2.1 Theoretical Background;53
1.1.2.3;2.3 Experimental Implementation;58
1.1.2.3.1;2.3.1 Optical Tweezers Set-up;58
1.1.2.3.2;2.3.2 Brownian Motion and Force Sensing;60
1.1.2.3.3;2.3.3 Optical Trapping of Linear Nanostructures;62
1.1.2.4;2.4 Photonic Force Microscopy;68
1.1.2.4.1;2.4.1 Bio-Nano-Imaging;68
1.1.2.4.2;2.4.2 Bio-Force Sensing at the Nanoscale;71
1.1.2.5;2.5 Raman Tweezers;74
1.1.2.5.1;2.5.1 The Raman Effect;74
1.1.2.5.2;2.5.2 Experimental Configuration;75
1.1.2.5.3;2.5.3 Applications;77
1.1.2.6;2.6 Conclusions;82
1.1.2.7;References;82
1.1.3;3 Polarization-Sensitive Tip-Enhanced Raman Scattering;86
1.1.3.1;3.1 Introduction;86
1.1.3.2;3.2 Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy;87
1.1.3.2.1;3.2.1 Concept and Advantages;87
1.1.3.2.2;3.2.2 Experimental Implementations of TERS with Side Illumination Optics;89
1.1.3.2.3;3.2.3 Probes for Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy;90
1.1.3.3;3.3 Polarized Raman Scattering from Cubic Crystals;93
1.1.3.3.1;3.3.1 Model for Backscattering Raman Emission in c-Silicon;93
1.1.3.3.2;3.3.2 Selection Rules;96
1.1.3.4;3.4 Tip-Enhanced Field Modeling;96
1.1.3.4.1;3.4.1 Phenomenological Model;96
1.1.3.4.2;3.4.2 Numerical Models and Results;99
1.1.3.5;3.5 Depolarization of Light Scattered by Metallic Tips;102
1.1.3.6;3.6 Polarized Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy of Silicon Crystals;104
1.1.3.6.1;3.6.1 Background Suppression;104
1.1.3.6.2;3.6.2 Selective Enhancement of the Raman Modes Induced by Depolarization;109
1.1.3.6.3;3.6.3 Evaluation of the Field Enhancement Factor;113
1.1.3.7;3.7 Conclusions;114
1.1.3.8;References;115
1.1.4;4 Electrostatic Force Microscopy and Kelvin Force Microscopy as a Probe of the Electrostatic and Electronic Properties of Carbon Nanotubes;118
1.1.4.1;4.1 Introduction;118
1.1.4.2;4.2 Electrostatic Measurements at the Nanometer Scale;119
1.1.4.2.1;4.2.1 Electrostatic Force Microscopy;119
1.1.4.2.1.1;Principle;119
1.1.4.2.1.2;Phase Shifts Versus Frequency Shifts;120
1.1.4.2.1.3;Capacitive Versus Charge EFM Signals;121
1.1.4.2.1.4;Modulated (1/2) EFM/FM-KFM;122
1.1.4.2.2;4.2.2 Kelvin Force Microscopy;122
1.1.4.2.2.1;Principle of Amplitude Modulation Kelvin Force Microscopy;122
1.1.4.2.2.2;Open-Loop KFM or ac-EFM;123
1.1.4.2.3;4.2.3 Lateral Resolution in EFM and KFM;123
1.1.4.2.3.1;Side Capacitance Effects;123
1.1.4.2.3.2;Carbon Nanotube Tip Probes;125
1.1.4.3;4.3 Electrostatic Imaging of Carbon Nanotubes;126
1.1.4.3.1;4.3.1 Capacitive Imaging of Carbon Nanotubes in Insulating Layers;127
1.1.4.3.2;4.3.2 EFM Imaging of Carbon Nanotubes and DNA;129
1.1.4.3.3;4.3.3 Imaging of Native Charges in Carbon Nanotube Loops;131
1.1.4.4;4.4 Charge Injection Experiments in Carbon Nanotubes;132
1.1.4.4.1;4.4.1 Charge Injection and Detection Techniques;132
1.1.4.4.2;4.4.2 Experimental Illustration of EFM Signals;133
1.1.4.4.2.1;Abrupt Discharging Processes in Carbon Nanotubes;135
1.1.4.4.2.2;Charge Emission to the Oxide;137
1.1.4.4.2.3;Continuous Discharge Processes;138
1.1.4.4.2.4;Nanotube Charge Versus Oxide Charge;139
1.1.4.4.3;4.4.3 Inner-Shell Charging of CNTs;141
1.1.4.4.4;4.4.4 Electrostatic Interactions in SWCNTs;144
1.1.4.5;4.5 Probing the Band Structure of Nanotubes on Insulators;145
1.1.4.5.1;4.5.1 Imaging the Semiconductor/Metal Character of Carbon Nanotubes;145
1.1.4.5.2;4.5.2 Imaging the Density of States of Carbon Nanotubes;147
1.1.4.6;4.6 KFM Studies of Nanotube Devices;148
1.1.4.6.1;4.6.1 Charge Transfers at Nanotube–Metal Interfaces;148
1.1.4.6.2;4.6.2 Diffusive and Ballistic Transport in Carbon Nanotubes;150
1.1.4.6.3;4.6.3 Kelvin Force Microscopy of CNTFETs;150
1.1.4.6.3.1;Backgate Operation of CNTFETs;150
1.1.4.6.3.2;KFM Determination of the lever arm of a CNTFET;151
1.1.4.6.3.3;Hysteretic Behavior of CNTFETs and Surface Charges;153
1.1.4.7;4.7 Conclusion;154
1.1.4.7.1;Acknowledgement;155
1.1.4.8;References;155
1.1.5;5 Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopywith Applications to Biology and Electronics;158
1.1.5.1;5.1 Carbon Nanotube Introduction;158
1.1.5.2;5.2 Carbon Nanotube Synthesis;163
1.1.5.3;5.3 Fabrication of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Probes;164
1.1.5.3.1;5.3.1 Fabrication of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Probes by Gluing;164
1.1.5.3.2;5.3.2 Mechanical Attachment in Scanning Electron Microscopy;164
1.1.5.3.3;5.3.3 Fabrication of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Probes by In Situ Pick-Up;166
1.1.5.3.4;5.3.4 Miscellaneous Methods for Post-Growth Attachment of Carbon Nanotube to Atomic Force Microscopy Tips;166
1.1.5.3.5;5.3.5 Metal Catalyst-Assisted Direct-Growth of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Probes;166
1.1.5.3.6;5.3.6 Post-Growth Attachment is Currently the Most Optimal Fabrication Process;168
1.1.5.4;5.4 Characteristics and Characterization of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Tips;170
1.1.5.5;5.5 Applications of Carbon Nanotube Scanning Probe Microscopy;177
1.1.5.5.1;5.5.1 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotube Tips for Chemical Force Microscopy;177
1.1.5.5.2;5.5.2 Carbon Nanotube Friction Force Microscopy;181
1.1.5.5.3;5.5.3 Carbon Nanotube Electric Force Microscopy;181
1.1.5.5.4;5.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Scanning Tunneling Microscopy;183
1.1.5.5.5;5.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Magnetic Force Microscopy;184
1.1.5.5.6;5.5.6 Carbon Nanotube Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy;187
1.1.5.5.7;5.5.7 Biological Applications of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy;188
1.1.5.6;References;194
1.1.6;6 Novel Strategies to Probe the Fluid Properties and Revealing its Hidden Elasticity;198
1.1.6.1;6.1 Introduction;199
1.1.6.2;6.2 Basic Theoretical Considerations: Conciliating Simple Liquid Approach to the Viscoelasticity Theory?;201
1.1.6.2.1;6.2.1 Simple Liquid Description;201
1.1.6.2.2;6.2.2 The Viscoelastic Approach;202
1.1.6.3;6.3 Conventional Procedure to Determine the Dynamic Properties of Fluids;203
1.1.6.3.1;6.3.1 Linear Rheology;203
1.1.6.3.2;6.3.2 Non-Linear Rheology;205
1.1.6.4;6.4 Unpredicted Phenomena and Unsolved Questions: Flow Instabilities, Non-Linearities, Shear Induced Transitions, Extra-Long Relaxation Times, Elasticity in the Liquid State;206
1.1.6.5;6.5 From Macro to Micro and Nanofluidics;210
1.1.6.6;6.6 Analysis of the Viscoelasticity Scanning Method;212
1.1.6.7;6.7 The Question of the Boundary Conditions: Surface Effects, Wetting, and Slippage;215
1.1.6.8;6.8 Novel Description of Conventional Fluids: from Viscous Liquids, Glass Formers to Entangled Polymers. Experiments in Narrow Gap Geometry: Extracting the Shear Elasticity in Viscous Fluids;216
1.1.6.9;6.9 Tribology Meets Rheology. Novel Methods for the Determination of Bulk Dynamic Properties of a Soft Solid or a Fluidic Material;217
1.1.6.10;6.10 Elasticity and Dimensionality in Fluids;221
1.1.6.11;6.11 General Summary and Perspectives;221
1.1.6.12;References;223
1.1.7;7 Combining Atomic Force Microscopy and Depth-Sensing Instruments for the Nanometer-Scale Mechanical Characterization of Soft Matter;227
1.1.7.1;7.1 Introduction;227
1.1.7.2;7.2 Determining Elastic Modulus of Compliant Materials from Nanoindentations;229
1.1.7.3;7.3 Determining Elastic Modulus of Compliant Materials from Nanoindentations;234
1.1.7.4;7.4 Modulus Estimate of a Challenging Set of Samples;239
1.1.7.5;References;248
1.1.8;8 Static and Dynamic Structural Modeling Analysis of Atomic Force Microscope;252
1.1.8.1;8.1 Introduction;253
1.1.8.2;8.2 Working Principle and Modes;254
1.1.8.3;8.3 Statics of Atomic Force Microscope Cantilever: Effective Stiffness Approach;257
1.1.8.4;8.4 Electrostatic, Surface and Residual Stress Influence on the Atomic Force Microscope Initial Deflection;261
1.1.8.5;8.5 Modeling Tip–Sample Contact;264
1.1.8.6;8.6 Non-Contact Atomic Force Microscope Dynamics: Damping and Influence of Tip–Surface Interaction;269
1.1.8.7;8.7 Dynamics of Intermittent Contact;275
1.1.8.8;8.8 Summary;279
1.1.8.8.1;Acknowledgement;280
1.1.8.9;References;280
1.1.9;9 Experimental Methods for the Calibration of Lateral Forces in Atomic Force Microscopy;285
1.1.9.1;9.1 Introduction;286
1.1.9.2;9.2 Basic Definitions and Relationships;290
1.1.9.2.1;9.2.1 The Calibration Constants Involved in a Lateral Force Measurement;290
1.1.9.2.2;9.2.2 Basic Relationships Involving the Calibration Constants;292
1.1.9.2.3;9.2.3 The Lateral and the Normal Spring Constant of a Rectangular CL;294
1.1.9.2.4;9.2.4 The Case of In-Plane Deformations;296
1.1.9.3;9.3 Calibration of the Lateral Sensitivity of the PSD;297
1.1.9.3.1;9.3.1 Available Methods;297
1.1.9.3.1.1;Mirrored Substrate Method;297
1.1.9.3.1.2;Geometrical Optics Method;299
1.1.9.3.1.3;Lateral FDC Method;300
1.1.9.3.1.4;Scanning Across a Vertical Step;301
1.1.9.3.2;9.3.2 Optical Crosstalk;301
1.1.9.4;9.4 Methods Relying on a Scanning Motion;303
1.1.9.4.1;9.4.1 The Wedge Method;303
1.1.9.4.2;9.4.2 Methods Involving the Normal Spring Constant;309
1.1.9.5;9.5 Methods Relying on a Force Balance upon Contact with a Rigid Structure;310
1.1.9.5.1;9.5.1 Normal Loading upon Contact with a Sloped Substrate;310
1.1.9.5.2;9.5.2 Normal Loading with the Contact Point off the CL Long Axis;312
1.1.9.5.3;9.5.3 Lateral Loading of a Horizontal Surface;314
1.1.9.5.4;9.5.4 Lateral Loading of a Vertical Surface;316
1.1.9.5.5;9.5.5 Mechanical Crosstalk;316
1.1.9.5.5.1;Considering the Effect of an Offset in the Tip Position;317
1.1.9.5.5.2;Considering the Effect of an Offset in the Position of the Shear Centre;318
1.1.9.5.5.3;Eliminating the Mechanical Crosstalk Effect by Novel Design Concepts;320
1.1.9.6;9.6 Methods Relying on a Force Balance Upon Contact with a Compliant Structure;320
1.1.9.6.1;9.6.1 The Case of a Vertical Reference Beam;320
1.1.9.6.2;9.6.2 The Case of a Horizontal Reference Beam;324
1.1.9.6.3;9.6.3 The Case of a Mechanically Suspended Platform;325
1.1.9.6.4;9.6.4 The Case of a Magnetically Suspended Platform;328
1.1.9.7;9.7 Methods Relying on Torsional Resonancesof the CL;330
1.1.9.8;9.8 Discussion;332
1.1.9.9;9.9 Concluding Remarks;344
1.1.9.10;References;345
1.2;Part II Characterization;348
1.2.1;10 Simultaneous Topography and Recognition Imaging;349
1.2.1.1;10.1 Introduction;350
1.2.1.2;10.2 AFM Tip Chemistry;352
1.2.1.3;10.3 Operating Principles of TREC;355
1.2.1.3.1;10.3.1 Half-Amplitude Versus Full-Amplitude Feedback;358
1.2.1.3.2;10.3.2 Adjusting the Amplitude;361
1.2.1.3.3;10.3.3 Adjusting the Driving Frequency;364
1.2.1.3.4;10.3.4 Proofing the Specificity of the Detected Interactions;366
1.2.1.3.4.1;Specificity Proof by Competitive Inhibition;366
1.2.1.3.4.2;Specificity Proof by Amplitude Variation;368
1.2.1.4;10.4 Applications of TREC: Single Proteins, Membranes,and Cells;368
1.2.1.4.1;10.4.1 Antibiotin Antibodies Adsorbed to an Organic Semiconductor;368
1.2.1.4.2;10.4.2 Bacterial S-Layer Lattices;370
1.2.1.4.3;10.4.3 RBC Membranes;373
1.2.1.4.4;10.4.4 Cells;375
1.2.1.5;10.5 Conclusion;381
1.2.1.6;References;381
1.2.2;11 Structural and Mechanical Mechanisms of Ocular Tissues Probed by AFM;387
1.2.2.1;11.1 Introduction;387
1.2.2.2;11.2 Atomic Force Microscopy;388
1.2.2.2.1;11.2.1 Principle of Operation;388
1.2.2.2.1.1;Overview;388
1.2.2.2.1.2;Imaging Mode;390
1.2.2.2.1.3;Force Mode;390
1.2.2.2.1.4;Force Mapping Mode;391
1.2.2.2.2;11.2.2 Instrumentation;391
1.2.2.2.3;11.2.3 Mechanical Measurements;392
1.2.2.3;11.3 Atomic Force Microscopy in Ophthalmology;394
1.2.2.3.1;11.3.1 Cornea;394
1.2.2.3.1.1;Structure;394
1.2.2.3.1.2;Corneal Refractive Surgery;398
1.2.2.3.1.3;Corneal Transplant Surgery;398
1.2.2.3.2;11.3.2 Contact Lenses;398
1.2.2.3.2.1;Surface Characterization;398
1.2.2.3.2.2;Biomechanical Properties;400
1.2.2.3.3;11.3.3 Lens;400
1.2.2.3.3.1;Structure;400
1.2.2.3.3.2;Mechanics;402
1.2.2.3.3.3;Artificial Lenses;403
1.2.2.3.4;11.3.4 Retinal Tissue;405
1.2.2.3.4.1;Structure;405
1.2.2.3.4.2;Mechanical Properties;406
1.2.2.4;11.4 Summary and Conclusions;407
1.2.2.5;References;407
1.2.3;12 Force-Extension and Force-Clamp AFM Spectroscopies in Investigating Mechanochemical Reactions and Mechanical Properties of Single Biomolecules;418
1.2.3.1;12.1 Introduction;419
1.2.3.2;12.2 Experimental Techniques for Measuring Displacements and Forces at the Single Molecule Level;420
1.2.3.2.1;12.2.1 Centroid Tracking;420
1.2.3.2.2;12.2.2 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer;421
1.2.3.2.3;12.2.3 Magnetic Tweezers;422
1.2.3.2.4;12.2.4 Optical Traps;422
1.2.3.2.5;12.2.5 Single Molecule AFM Force Spectroscopy;424
1.2.3.3;12.3 Displacement and Force as Control Parameters in Small Systems;425
1.2.3.3.1;12.3.1 Displacement Sensitivity and Resolution;425
1.2.3.3.2;12.3.2 Force Sensitivity and Resolution;427
1.2.3.4;12.4 AFM Force Spectroscopy with a Few Piconewton Sensitivity and at a Single Molecule Level;427
1.2.3.4.1;12.4.1 Fingerprinting the Biomolecules;428
1.2.3.4.2;12.4.2 Optimizing the AFM System;428
1.2.3.5;12.5 FX-AFM Probes Mechanical Stability of Proteins and Polysaccharides;429
1.2.3.5.1;12.5.1 Details of the FX Trace;429
1.2.3.5.2;12.5.2 What can be Inferred from the FX Trace?;430
1.2.3.5.3;12.5.3 Applications of FX Force Spectroscopy;431
1.2.3.6;12.6 FC-AFM Probes the Details of Protein (Un)folding and Force-Induced Disulfide Reductions in Proteins;432
1.2.3.6.1;12.6.1 Details of the FC Trace;432
1.2.3.6.2;12.6.2 What can be Inferred from the FC Trace?;433
1.2.3.6.3;12.6.3 Applications of the FC Spectroscopy;435
1.2.3.7;12.7 Some Shortcomings of the FX/FC-AFM Spectroscopies;436
1.2.3.8;References;437
1.2.4;13 Multilevel Experimental and Modelling Techniques for Bioartificial Scaffolds and Matrices;447
1.2.4.1;13.1 Scaffolds for Tissue-Engineering Applications;448
1.2.4.2;13.2 Multi-Scale Computer-Aided Approach in Designing and Modelling Scaffold for Tissue Regeneration;451
1.2.4.2.1;13.2.1 CATE: Computer-Aided Anatomical Tissue Representation, CT and MRI Techniques;451
1.2.4.2.2;13.2.2 CATE: From Computer-Aided Anatomic 3D Reconstruction to Scaffolds Modelling and Design;454
1.2.4.2.3;13.2.3 CATE: FEM and CFD-Based Scaffolds Modelling and Design Methods;470
1.2.4.3;13.3 Understanding the Cell and Tissue Mechanics: A Multi-Scale Approach;486
1.2.4.4;13.4 Experimental Techniques for Scaffolds Characterisations;490
1.2.4.5;References;498
1.2.5;14 Quantized Mechanics of Nanotubes and Bundles;509
1.2.5.1;14.1 Introduction;509
1.2.5.2;14.2 Quantized Fracture Mechanics Approaches;510
1.2.5.3;14.3 Fracture Strength;514
1.2.5.4;14.4 Impact Strength;515
1.2.5.5;14.5 Hyper-Elasticity, Elastic-Plasticity, Fractal Cracks,and Finite Domains;516
1.2.5.6;14.6 Fatigue Life;516
1.2.5.7;14.7 Elasticity;517
1.2.5.8;14.8 Atomistic Simulations;518
1.2.5.9;14.9 Nanotensile Tests;521
1.2.5.10;14.10 Thermodynamic Limit;524
1.2.5.11;14.11 Hierarchical Simulations and Size Effects: from a Nanotube to a Megacable;525
1.2.5.12;14.12 Conclusions;527
1.2.5.13;References;527
1.2.6;15 Spin and Charge Pairing Instabilities in Nanoclusters and Nanomaterials;529
1.2.6.1;15.1 From Atoms to Solids;529
1.2.6.1.1;15.1.1 Discreteness of Spectrum;531
1.2.6.1.2;15.1.2 Electron Spectroscopy;532
1.2.6.1.3;15.1.3 Electron Correlations in Clusters;533
1.2.6.2;15.2 Transition Metal Oxides;535
1.2.6.2.1;15.2.1 Spin-Charge Separation;535
1.2.6.2.1.1;Doped Cuprates and Manganites;537
1.2.6.2.1.2;Electronic Characteristics;537
1.2.6.2.1.3;Phase Separation;538
1.2.6.2.2;15.2.2 BCS Versus High Tc Superconductivity;540
1.2.6.2.3;15.2.3 Localized Versus Itinerant Behavior;542
1.2.6.3;15.3 Scanning Tunneling Experiments;543
1.2.6.3.1;15.3.1 Pseudogap and Gap;543
1.2.6.3.2;15.3.2 Two Energy (Temperature) Scales;545
1.2.6.3.3;15.3.3 Coherent Versus Incoherent Condensation;546
1.2.6.3.4;15.3.4 Modulated Pairs in Cuprates;548
1.2.6.3.5;15.3.5 Inhomogeneities;548
1.2.6.4;15.4 Bethe-Ansatz and GSCF Theories;550
1.2.6.5;15.5 Hubbard Model;551
1.2.6.5.1;15.5.1 GSCF Decoupling Scheme;551
1.2.6.5.2;15.5.2 Canonical Transformation;553
1.2.6.5.3;15.5.3 Order Parameter q(+);554
1.2.6.5.4;15.5.4 Quasi-Particle Spectrum;556
1.2.6.5.5;15.5.5 Chemical Potential;557
1.2.6.5.6;15.5.6 Ground State Phase Diagram;559
1.2.6.5.7;15.5.7 GSCF Phase Diagram at T=0;561
1.2.6.6;15.6 Bottom up Approach;562
1.2.6.6.1;15.6.1 The Cluster Formalism;564
1.2.6.7;15.7 General Methodology;564
1.2.6.7.1;15.7.1 The Canonical Charge and Spin Gaps;565
1.2.6.7.2;15.7.2 Quantum Critical Points: Level Crossings;567
1.2.6.7.3;15.7.3 Symmetry Breaking;568
1.2.6.7.4;15.7.4 The Charge and Spin Instabilities;570
1.2.6.7.5;15.7.5 The Charge and Spin Susceptibility Peaks;572
1.2.6.7.6;15.7.6 Charge and Spin Inhomogeneities;573
1.2.6.7.7;15.7.7 The Coherent Charge and Spin Pairings;575
1.2.6.8;15.8 Ground State Properties;576
1.2.6.8.1;15.8.1 Bipartite Clusters;576
1.2.6.8.2;15.8.2 Tetrahedrons;578
1.2.6.8.3;15.8.3 Square Pyramids;581
1.2.6.9;15.9 Phase T- Diagram;582
1.2.6.9.1;15.9.1 Tetrahedrons at t=1;582
1.2.6.10;15.10 Conclusion;585
1.2.6.11;References;587
1.2.7;16 Mechanical Properties of One-Dimensional Nanostructures;593
1.2.7.1;16.1 Introduction;593
1.2.7.2;16.2 Mechanical Property Measurements of One-Dimensional Nanostructures;594
1.2.7.2.1;16.2.1 Electric Field-Induced Mechanical Resonance of One-Dimensional Nanostructures;595
1.2.7.2.2;16.2.2 Axial Tensile Loading of One-Dimensional Nanostructures;596
1.2.7.2.3;16.2.3 Three-Point Bending Test of Bridge-Suspended One-Dimensional Nanostructures;597
1.2.7.2.4;16.2.4 Beam-Bending of One-End-Clamped One-Dimensional Nanostructures;598
1.2.7.2.5;16.2.5 Instrumented Indentation of One-Dimensional Nanostructures;599
1.2.7.2.6;16.2.6 Contact Modulation AFM-Based Techniques;600
1.2.7.3;16.3 Contact-Resonance Atomic Force Microscopy;601
1.2.7.3.1;16.3.1 Cantilever Dynamics in CR-AFM;602
1.2.7.3.2;16.3.2 Contact Mechanics in CR-AFM;605
1.2.7.3.3;16.3.3 Precision and Accuracy in CR-AFM Measurements (Dual-Reference Calibration Method for CR-AFM);607
1.2.7.4;16.4 Contact-Resonance Atomic Force Microscopy Applied to Elastic Modulus Measurements of 1D Nanostructures;609
1.2.7.4.1;16.4.1 Normal Contact Stiffness of the Tip–Nanowire Contact;610
1.2.7.4.2;16.4.2 Lateral Contact Stiffness of the Tip–Nanowire Contact;611
1.2.7.5;16.5 Elastic Moduli of ZnO and Te Nanowires Measured by CR-AFM;612
1.2.7.5.1;16.5.1 CR-AFM Measurements on ZnO Nanowires;612
1.2.7.5.2;16.5.2 CR-AFM Measurements on Te Nanowires;618
1.2.7.6;16.6 Surface Effects on the Mechanical Properties of 1D Nanostructures;623
1.2.7.7;16.7 How Important Are the Mechanical Propertiesof 1D Nanostructures in Applications?;626
1.2.7.8;References;627
1.2.8;17 Colossal Permittivity in Advanced Functional Heterogeneous Materials: The Relevanceof the Local Measurements at Submicron Scale;634
1.2.8.1;17.1 Introduction;635
1.2.8.2;17.2 Physical Properties of Heterogeneous Materials;637
1.2.8.2.1;17.2.1 Theory of the Dielectric Relaxation: Basic Principles;637
1.2.8.2.1.1;Mobile Charge Carrier Contribution;638
1.2.8.2.2;17.2.2 Separation of Charges: Maxwell/Wagner/Sillars Polarization;640
1.2.8.2.2.1;Mesoscopic Scale: Separation of ChargesMaxwell/Wagner/Sillars (MW) Polarization;640
1.2.8.2.2.2;Macroscopic Scale: Electrode Polarization;641
1.2.8.2.3;17.2.3 Ultimate Theories on the Dielectric Relaxation;642
1.2.8.2.3.1;The Presence of Inner Schottky Barriers;644
1.2.8.2.3.2;Intrinsic and Extrinsic Mechanisms;646
1.2.8.3;17.3 Conventional Macroscopic Techniques;648
1.2.8.3.1;17.3.1 Basic Principles;648
1.2.8.3.2;17.3.2 Dielectric Spectroscopy;649
1.2.8.4;17.4 Scanning Probe Microscopy;650
1.2.8.4.1;17.4.1 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy on Giant- Materials;650
1.2.8.4.2;17.4.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy on Giant- Materials;654
1.2.8.4.3;17.4.3 SIM on Giant- Materials;657
1.2.8.4.3.1;CCTO Polycrystalline Ceramics;657
1.2.8.4.3.2;CCTO Single Crystal;662
1.2.8.5;17.5 Summary and Conclusions;664
1.2.8.6;References;665
1.2.9;18 Controlling Wear on Nanoscale;668
1.2.9.1;18.1 Introduction;669
1.2.9.2;18.2 Molecular and Supra-Molecular Featuresfor Basic Wear Mechanism;672
1.2.9.2.1;18.2.1 Abrasive Wear Mechanisms for Viscoelastic Materials;687
1.2.9.3;18.3 Modelling Wear as an Activated Process;690
1.2.9.3.1;18.3.1 Self-assembled Monolayers as a Frame for Modelling Wear in Viscoelastic Materials;696
1.2.9.4;18.4 Conclusions;704
1.2.9.5;References;705
1.2.10;19 Contact Potential Difference Techniques as Probing Tools in Tribology and Surface Mapping;708
1.2.10.1;19.1 Introduction;708
1.2.10.2;19.2 Electron Work Function as a Parameterfor Surfaces Characterization;709
1.2.10.3;19.3 Measurements of Contact Potential Difference;711
1.2.10.3.1;19.3.1 Kelvin-Zisman Probe;712
1.2.10.3.2;19.3.2 Nonvibrating Probe;713
1.2.10.3.3;19.3.3 Ionization Probe;714
1.2.10.3.4;19.3.4 Atomic Force Microscope in Kelvin Mode;715
1.2.10.4;19.4 Typical Electron Work Function Responses;717
1.2.10.4.1;19.4.1 Surface Deformation;717
1.2.10.4.2;19.4.2 Friction;719
1.2.10.4.3;19.4.3 Experimental Examples of Kelvin Technique Application;722
1.2.10.5;19.5 Periodic Electron Work FunctionChanges During Friction;725
1.2.10.5.1;19.5.1 Phenomenology;725
1.2.10.6;19.6 Surface Mapping Examples;734
1.2.10.7;19.7 Closure;737
1.2.10.7.1;Acknowledgements;738
1.2.10.8;References;738
1.3;Part III Industrial Applications;742
1.3.1;20 Modern Atomic Force Microscopy and Its Application to the Study of Genome Architecture;743
1.3.1.1;20.1 Introduction: History of AFM Applications to Biological Macromolecules;744
1.3.1.1.1;20.1.1 Nanometer Scale Imaging of DNA–Protein Complexes;744
1.3.1.1.2;20.1.2 Visualization of Various Biological Macromolecules;745
1.3.1.1.3;20.1.3 Challenges Toward Technical Advancement;746
1.3.1.2;20.2 Trends in Biological AFM;747
1.3.1.2.1;20.2.1 Analyses of Biological Macromolecules in Motion;747
1.3.1.2.2;20.2.2 Measurement of Pico-Newton Mechanical Forces in Biological Systems;749
1.3.1.2.3;20.2.3 Cantilever Modification and Application to Force Measurements;750
1.3.1.2.4;20.2.4 Recognition Imaging: Integration of Force Measurements and Imaging;751
1.3.1.3;20.3 Eukaryotic Genome Architecture;751
1.3.1.3.1;20.3.1 Biophysical Properties of DNA and DNA-Binding Proteins;753
1.3.1.3.2;20.3.2 Fundamental Structures of Eukaryotic Genomes;755
1.3.1.3.3;20.3.3 Chromosome Structure in the Mitotic Phase;758
1.3.1.3.4;20.3.4 Chromatin Structure Inside Nuclei;758
1.3.1.4;20.4 Prokaryotic Genome Architecture;759
1.3.1.4.1;20.4.1 Bacterial DNA-Binding Proteins;759
1.3.1.4.2;20.4.2 Bacterial Genome Structure and Dynamics;761
1.3.1.4.3;20.4.3 Archaeal DNA-Binding Proteins, Genome Structure, and Dynamics;762
1.3.1.5;20.5 Conclusion/Perspectives;766
1.3.1.6;References;766
1.3.2;21 Near-Field Optical Litography;777
1.3.2.1;21.1 Introduction;778
1.3.2.2;21.2 Lithography: Principles and Materials;778
1.3.2.2.1;21.2.1 Photolitography;780
1.3.2.2.2;21.2.2 Electron Beam Lithography;782
1.3.2.2.3;21.2.3 Ion Beam Lithography;783
1.3.2.2.4;21.2.4 Materials;784
1.3.2.3;21.3 Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy and Lithography;787
1.3.2.3.1;21.3.1 Aperture and Apertureless SNOM Lithography;791
1.3.2.3.2;21.3.2 Near-Field Optical Lithography Achievements on Azo – Polymers;801
1.3.2.4;21.4 Conclusions;808
1.3.2.5;References;808
1.3.3;22 A New AFM-Based Lithography Method: Thermochemical Nanolithography;814
1.3.3.1;22.1 Introduction;815
1.3.3.2;22.2 Thermochemical Nanolithography;816
1.3.3.3;22.3 Thermal Unmasking of Chemical Groups on a Polymer;818
1.3.3.3.1;22.3.1 Unmasking Carboxylic Acid Groups;818
1.3.3.3.2;22.3.2 Unmasking Amines Groups;821
1.3.3.4;22.4 Two-Step Wettability Modification;821
1.3.3.5;22.5 Covalent Functionalization and Molecular Recognition;824
1.3.3.6;References;828
1.3.4;23 Scanning Probe Alloying Nanolithography;831
1.3.4.1;23.1 Brief Review of Nanolithography;831
1.3.4.1.1;23.1.1 Introduction;831
1.3.4.1.2;23.1.2 Probe-Based Lithography;833
1.3.4.1.3;23.1.3 Probe Materials and Properties;834
1.3.4.1.4;23.1.4 Probe Wear;835
1.3.4.2;23.2 Nanoalloying and Nanocrystallization;837
1.3.4.2.1;23.2.1 Background;837
1.3.4.2.2;23.2.2 Synthesis of Nanoalloys;837
1.3.4.3;23.3 Probe-Based Nanoalloying and Nanocrystalizations;838
1.3.4.3.1;23.3.1 Background;838
1.3.4.3.2;23.3.2 Scanning Probe-Based Alloying Nanolithography;839
1.3.4.3.2.1;AFM Functionality as a Processing Tool;839
1.3.4.3.2.2;Basic AFM Setup for Nanoprocessing;840
1.3.4.3.2.3;Interfacial Interactions Between Tip and Substrate;840
1.3.4.3.2.4;Mechanical Sliding;840
1.3.4.3.2.5;Morphology of AFM Tips;841
1.3.4.3.2.6;Chemical Analysis;842
1.3.4.3.2.7;Morphological Analysis of ``Wear'' Tracks;843
1.3.4.4;References;845
1.3.5;24 Structuring the Surface of Crystallizable Polymers with an AFM Tip;851
1.3.5.1;24.1 Introduction;851
1.3.5.2;24.2 Experimental Part;854
1.3.5.2.1;24.2.1 Characteristics of the Polymers Used;854
1.3.5.2.2;24.2.2 Sample Preparation;855
1.3.5.2.3;24.2.3 The Employed AFM Working Mode;855
1.3.5.3;24.3 Melting of Confined, Nanometer-Sized Polymer Crystals;859
1.3.5.3.1;24.3.1 Self-Assembly and Non-Periodic Patterns;859
1.3.5.3.2;24.3.2 The AFM Set-Up Employed for Local Heating;861
1.3.5.3.3;24.3.3 Local Melting of Confined Polymer Crystals;861
1.3.5.4;24.4 Lowering the Crystal Nucleation Barrier by Deforming Polymer Chains;874
1.3.5.4.1;24.4.1 Stretched Chains Resulting from Friction Transfer;874
1.3.5.4.2;24.4.2 Stretched Chains Resulting from Rubbing with an AFM Tip;877
1.3.5.5;24.5 Conclusions: Controlling Polymer Properties at a Molecular Scale;880
1.3.5.6;References;881
1.3.6;25 Application of Contact Mode AFM to ManufacturingProcesses;885
1.3.6.1;25.1 Introduction;885
1.3.6.2;25.2 Review of Atomic Force Microscope Capabilities Relevant to Manufacturing;887
1.3.6.2.1;25.2.1 Evaluation of Mechanical Properties;887
1.3.6.2.1.1;Hardness Testing;887
1.3.6.2.1.2;Scratch Testing;892
1.3.6.2.1.3;Wear Testing;896
1.3.6.2.2;25.2.2 Friction/Lubricant Evaluation;900
1.3.6.2.2.1;Review of Lubrication Fundamentals;900
1.3.6.2.2.2;Friction Force Microscopy;903
1.3.6.3;25.3 Applications to Metal Forming;904
1.3.6.3.1;25.3.1 Evaluation of Lubricants;904
1.3.6.3.2;25.3.2 Bulk and Sheet Forming;905
1.3.6.3.3;25.3.3 Powder Processing;912
1.3.6.4;25.4 Abrasive Machining Processes;914
1.3.6.4.1;25.4.1 Grinding and Polishing;914
1.3.6.4.2;25.4.2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing;915
1.3.6.4.3;25.4.3 Miscellaneous Applications;919
1.3.6.4.3.1;Nanolithography;919
1.3.6.5;25.5 Polymer Processing;920
1.3.6.6;25.6 Conclusions;922
1.3.6.7;References;923
1.3.7;26 Scanning Probe Microscopy as a Tool Applied to Agriculture;933
1.3.7.1;26.1 Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture;933
1.3.7.2;26.2 Applications of AFM in Agriculture;934
1.3.7.2.1;26.2.1 Introduction;934
1.3.7.2.2;26.2.2 Some Examples and Results of Agricultural Research;934
1.3.7.2.2.1;Nanostructured Films;934
1.3.7.2.2.2;Structures Containing Nanoparticles and Nanofibers;940
1.3.7.2.2.3;Sensors and Biosensors;941
1.3.7.2.2.4;Direct Measurement of Interaction Forces;945
1.3.7.2.2.5;Natural Fibers and Soil Science;950
1.3.7.2.2.6;Other Applications;954
1.3.7.3;26.3 Conclusions and Perspectives;958
1.3.7.4;References;958
1.4;Index;963