Becker Neutron Stars and Pulsars

2009
ISBN: 978-3-540-76965-1
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 357, 697 Seiten

Reihe: Astrophysics and Space Science Library

Neutron stars are the most compact astronomical objects in the universe which are accessible by direct observation. Studying neutron stars means studying physics in regimes unattainable in any terrestrial laboratory. Understanding their observed complex phenomena requires a wide range of scientific disciplines, including the nuclear and condensed matter physics of very dense matter in neutron star interiors, plasma physics and quantum electrodynamics of magnetospheres, and the relativistic magneto-hydrodynamics of electron-positron pulsar winds interacting with some ambient medium. Not to mention the test bed neutron stars provide for general relativity theories, and their importance as potential sources of gravitational waves. It is this variety of disciplines which, among others, makes neutron star research so fascinating, not only for those who have been working in the field for many years but also for students and young scientists. The aim of this book is to serve as a reference work which not only reviews the progress made since the early days of pulsar astronomy, but especially focuses on questions such as: 'What have we learned about the subject and how did we learn it?', 'What are the most important open questions in this area?' and 'What new tools, telescopes, observations, and calculations are needed to answer these questions?'. All authors who have contributed to this book have devoted a significant part of their scientific careers to exploring the nature of neutron stars and understanding pulsars. Everyone has paid special attention to writing educational comprehensive review articles with the needs of beginners, students and young scientists as potential readers in mind. This book will be a valuable source of information for these groups.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Becker, Werner

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;8
3;Contributors;14
4;Radio Pulsar Statistics;17
4.1;1.1 Introduction;17
4.2;1.2 The Observed Pulsar Spatial Distribution;20
4.3;1.3 Selection Effects in Radio Pulsar Surveys;21
4.4;1.4 Techniques to Account for Observational Selection;23
4.4.1;1.4.1 Population Inversion Techniques;23
4.4.2;1.4.2 Monte Carlo Population Synthesis;24
4.5;1.5 Outstanding Problems;25
4.5.1;1.5.1 Population Size and Birth Rate;26
4.5.2;1.5.2 The Birth Spin Periods of Pulsars;27
4.5.3;1.5.3 Period Evolution and Field Decay of Isolated Pulsars;27
4.5.4;1.5.4 Statistical Puzzles in the Millisecond Pulsar Population;28
4.5.5;1.5.5 Where Are All the Isolated “Recycled” Pulsars?;29
4.5.6;1.5.6 How Much Do We Understand About Globular Cluster Pulsars?;30
4.6;1.6 Concluding Remarks;30
4.7;An Open Approach to Pulsar Population Syntheses;31
4.8;References;32
5;Radio Emission Properties of Pulsars;34
5.1;2.1 Introduction;34
5.2;2.2 Parkes Multi-Beam Pulsar Surveys;37
5.3;2.3 Other Recent Surveys;40
5.4;2.4 Pulsar Nulling and Mode Changing;42
5.5;2.5 Pulse Modulation and Drifting;46
5.6;2.6 Giant and Not-So-Giant Pulses;48
5.7;2.7 Transient Radio Emission from a Magnetar;50
5.8;2.8 Rotation Axis: Proper Motion Correlation;51
5.9;2.9 Conclusions;53
5.10;References;53
6;Rotating Radio Transients;55
6.1;3.1 Introduction;55
6.2;3.2 The Discovery of Rotating Radio Transients;57
6.3;3.3 Ongoing Radio Observations of the RRATs;62
6.3.1;3.3.1 J0848- 43;63
6.3.2;3.3.2 J1317- 5759;64
6.3.3;3.3.3 J1443- 60;64
6.3.4;3.3.4 J1754- 30;65
6.3.5;3.3.5 J1819- 1458;65
6.3.6;3.3.6 J1826- 14;65
6.3.7;3.3.7 J1839- 01;65
6.3.8;3.3.8 J1846- 02;66
6.3.9;3.3.9 J1848- 12;66
6.3.10;3.3.10 J1911+00;67
6.3.11;3.3.11 J1913+1333;67
6.4;3.4 X-Ray Properties of the RRATs;68
6.4.1;3.4.1 J1317- 5759;69
6.4.2;3.4.2 J1819- 1458;69
6.4.3;3.4.3 J1913+1333;72
6.5;3.5 What Are They?;73
6.6;3.6 Population Estimates;75
6.7;3.7 Recent Discoveries;77
6.8;3.8 Concluding Remarks;78
6.9;References;79
7;Intermittent Pulsars;81
7.1;4.1 Introduction;81
7.2;4.2 PSR B1931+24;81
7.3;4.3 Discussion;84
7.4;References;86
8;The Double Pulsar: A Unique Lab for Relativistic Plasma Physics and Tests of General Relativity;87
8.1;5.1 Introduction;87
8.2;5.2 The Double Pulsar;88
8.2.1;5.2.1 A Laboratory for Plasma Physics;88
8.2.2;5.2.2 A Laboratory for Strong-Field Gravity;91
8.2.3;5.2.3 Space-Motion and Evolution of the Double Pulsar;101
8.3;5.3 Orbital Decay Measurements and Alternative Theories of Gravity;102
8.4;5.4 Future Tests;102
8.5;5.5 Concluding Remarks;103
8.6;References;104
9;X-Ray Emission from Pulsars and Neutron Stars;105
9.1;6.1 Introduction;105
9.2;6.2 Physics and Astrophysics of Isolated Neutron Stars;109
9.2.1;6.2.1 Rotation-Powered Pulsars: The Magnetic Braking Model;110
9.2.2;6.2.2 High-Energy Emission Models;112
9.3;6.3 High-Energy Emission Properties of Neutron Stars;117
9.3.1;6.3.1 Young Neutron Stars in Supernova Remnants;117
9.3.2;6.3.2 Cooling Neutron Stars;129
9.3.3;6.3.3 Old Nearby Radio Pulsars;129
9.3.4;6.3.4 Millisecond Pulsars;133
9.4;6.4 Summary;139
9.4.1;6.4.1 Concluding Remarks;151
9.5;References;151
10;Isolated Neutron Stars: The Challenge of Simplicity;155
10.1;7.1 Introduction;155
10.2;7.2 The Magnificent Seven in Parade;158
10.2.1;7.2.1 Timing Properties;158
10.2.2;7.2.2 Spectral Properties;159
10.2.3;7.2.3 Optical Counterparts, Proper Motions and Distances;162
10.3;7.3 Modeling the Surface Emission;163
10.3.1;7.3.1 Pulse Profiles;164
10.3.2;7.3.2 Spectra;168
10.4;7.4 Open Issues and Future Perspectives;172
10.5;References;175
11;Millisecond Pulsars in Globular Clusters and the Field;178
11.1;8.1 Introduction;178
11.2;8.2 Early X-Ray Studies of MSPs;179
11.2.1;8.2.1 ROSAT, RXTE, and ASCA Observations;179
11.3;8.3 Chandra Studies of MSPs in Globular Clusters;180
11.3.1;8.3.1 47 Tuc;180
11.3.2;8.3.2 NGC 6397;182
11.3.3;8.3.3 M28 and Terzan 5;185
11.3.4;8.3.4 Other Clusters;186
11.4;8.4 MSPs as Beacons for Constraining the Neutron Star Equation of State;187
11.4.1;8.4.1 PSR J0437- 4715;188
11.4.2;8.4.2 PSRs J0030+0451 and J2124- 3358;189
11.5;8.5 Future Prospects;190
11.5.1;8.5.1 Searches for Radio-Quiet MSPs;190
11.6;References;192
12;Theory of Radiative Transfer in Neutron Star Atmospheres and Its Applications;194
12.1;9.1 Introduction;194
12.2;9.2 Properties of X-ray Emission from Isolated Neutron Stars;195
12.3;9.3 Modeling Thermal Radiation from Neutron Stars;196
12.3.1;9.3.1 Why Is the Thermal Radiation Important?;196
12.3.2;9.3.2 Properties of Neutron Star Surfaces;197
12.3.3;9.3.3 Non-Magnetic Atmosphere Models;199
12.3.4;9.3.4 Magnetized Atmosphere Models;202
12.3.5;9.3.5 Thermal Radiation as Detected by a Distant Observer;204
12.3.6;9.3.6 Atmosphere Emission vs. Blackbody Radiation;205
12.3.7;9.3.7 Modeling Radiation from Condensed Neutron Star Surface;206
12.4;9.4 Thermal Emission from Neutron Stars: Observational Results;207
12.4.1;9.4.1 PSR J1119- 6127;207
12.4.2;9.4.2 The Vela Pulsar and PSR B1706- 44;209
12.4.3;9.4.3 PSRs J0538+2817 and B2334+61;210
12.4.4;9.4.4 Middle-Aged Pulsars: B0656+14, B1055- 52 and Geminga;211
12.4.5;9.4.5 Old Radio Pulsars;214
12.4.6;9.4.6 Millisecond Pulsars;216
12.4.7;9.4.7 Putative Pulsars: CXOU J061705.3+222127 (J0617) and RX J0007.0+ 7302 ( J0007);218
12.4.8;9.4.8 1E 1207.4- 5209 ( 1E1207);218
12.5;9.5 Concluding Remarks;220
12.6;References;222
13;Neutron Star Interiors and the Equation of State of Superdense Matter;225
13.1;10.1 Introduction;225
13.2;10.2 Neutron Star Masses;227
13.3;10.3 Composition of Cold and Dense Neutron Star Matter;229
13.3.1;10.3.1 Hyperons and Baryon Resonances;230
13.3.2;10.3.2 Meson Condensation;232
13.3.3;10.3.3 H-Matter and Exotic Baryons;233
13.3.4;10.3.4 Quark Deconfinement;234
13.3.5;10.3.5 Color-Superconductivity;236
13.4;10.4 Strange Quark Matter;238
13.4.1;10.4.1 Nuclear Crust on Strange Stars;238
13.4.2;10.4.2 Strange Dwarfs;239
13.4.3;10.4.3 Surface Properties of Strange Matter;239
13.5;10.5 Proto Neutron Star Matter;240
13.6;10.6 Rotational Instabilities;242
13.7;10.7 Net Electric Fields and Compact Star Structure;244
13.8;10.8 Conclusions and Outlook;249
13.9;References;253
14;Neutron Star Cooling: I;258
14.1;11.1 Introduction;258
14.2;11.2 The Essential Physics of Neutron Star Cooling;260
14.2.1;11.2.1 Specific Heat;261
14.2.2;11.2.2 Pairing: Superfluidity and Superconductivity;263
14.2.3;11.2.3 Neutrino Emission;267
14.2.4;11.2.4 Photon Emission and the Envelope;271
14.2.5;11.2.5 Some Simple Analytical Solutions;276
14.3;11.3 Minimal Cooling of Neutron Stars;279
14.4;11.4 Fast Cooling of Neutron Stars;286
14.4.1;11.4.1 A Warning About Fast Neutrino Cooling Scenarios;288
14.4.2;11.4.2 A Look at the Evolution of Temperature Profiles;290
14.5;11.5 More than Only Dense Matter: Magnetic Fields;291
14.6;11.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects;295
14.7;References;297
15;Neutron Star Cooling: II;300
15.1;12.1 Introduction ;300
15.1.1;12.1.1 Historical Background;300
15.1.2;12.1.2 Recent Developments;302
15.2;12.2 Basic Equations and Input Physics ;303
15.2.1;12.2.1 Basic Equations and Methods of Solution;303
15.2.2;12.2.2 Major Input Parameters and Their Effects;307
15.3;12.3 Neutron Star Thermal Evolution Models;315
15.3.1;12.3.1 Earlier Work;315
15.3.2;12.3.2 Currently Up-Dated Observational Data;319
15.3.3;12.3.3 Recent and Current Thermal Evolution Models;321
15.4;12.4 Future Prospects;326
15.5;12.5 Concluding Remarks;327
15.6;References;327
16;Turning Points in the Evolution of Isolated Neutron Stars’ Magnetic Fields;330
16.1;13.1 Introduction;330
16.2;13.2 MHD Instabilities Immediately After Birth: Magnetar or Radio Pulsar?;334
16.3;13.3 Fallback Accretion, Submergence and Rediffusion: Pulsar or Radio Quiet Neutron Star?;343
16.4;13.4 Thermoelectric Instabilities: Strong Fields Despite Deep Submergence?;347
16.5;13.5 Large Magnetization Parameters: Hall-Drift Induced Instabilities and Strongly Anisotropic Surface Temperatures?;352
16.5.1;13.5.1 Hall-Drift in the Crust;352
16.5.2;13.5.2 Temperature Distribution in the Magnetized Crust;354
16.6;13.6 Concluding Remarks;360
16.7;References;361
17;Pulsar Spin, Magnetic Fields, and Glitches;364
17.1;14.1 Introduction;364
17.2;14.2 Magnetic Field Changes in Spinning Down Neutron Stars;369
17.3;14.3 Magnetic Dipole Field Changes in Spinning Up NSs;370
17.4;14.4 Comparisons of Pulsar Dipole Field Observations with Model Expectations;373
17.5;14.5 Polar Cap Areas;374
17.6;14.6 Pulsar Spin-Period Glitches from Spin-Induced B-Field Changes;376
17.6.1;14.6.1 Crab-Like Glitches;376
17.6.2;14.6.2 Giant Vela-Like Glitches;378
17.7;14.7 Open Questions and Summary;379
17.8;References;381
18;Pulsar Emission: Where to Go;383
18.1;15.1 Introduction;383
18.2;15.2 Pulsar Electrodynamics: Follow the Energy;384
18.2.1;15.2.1 Force-Free Model: Heuristics;386
18.2.2;15.2.2 Force-Free Model: Results;387
18.2.3;15.2.3 Beyond the Force-Free Model: Plasma Sighs and Whispers;390
18.2.4;15.2.4 Electrospheres?;393
18.2.5;15.2.5 Magnetic Geometry of Radiating Layers;396
18.2.6;15.2.6 Current Flow Profile and Gap Electrodynamics;397
18.2.7;15.2.7 Gap Subversion: Non-Uniform Current Profiles;399
18.2.8;15.2.8 Gamma Ray Tests of Existing Gap Models;405
18.3;15.3 Follow the Mass;408
18.3.1;15.3.1 Observations and Consequences;409
18.3.2;15.3.2 Pulsar Wind Nebula Models;412
18.3.3;15.3.3 Beyond MHD;416
18.4;15.4 Conclusion: Pulsar Problems and Prospects;426
18.5;References;427
19;The Theory of PulsarWinds and Nebulae;431
19.1;16.1 Introduction;431
19.2;16.2 The Magnetosphere;432
19.3;16.3 The Wind of an Aligned Rotator;434
19.4;16.4 The StripedWind;437
19.5;16.5 Observability of the Wind ;440
19.5.1;16.5.1 Point-Like Appearance;440
19.5.2;16.5.2 Inverse Compton Scattering;442
19.5.3;16.5.3 Pulses from the Wind;443
19.6;16.6 The Termination Shock;446
19.7;16.7 The Nebula;450
19.8;16.8 Summary;456
19.9;References;457
20;Implications of HESS Observations of Pulsar Wind Nebulae;461
20.1;17.1 Introduction;461
20.2;17.2 The Evolving Definition of Pulsar Wind Nebulae;462
20.3;17.3 Energy Scales and Lifetimes of X-Ray Synchrotron and VHE IC Emitting Electrons;464
20.4;17.4 Particle Acceleration at PWN Shocks;466
20.4.1;17.4.1 The Synchrotron Limit;467
20.4.2;17.4.2 The Gyro-Radius Limit;467
20.4.3;17.4.3 PSR B1929+10: A Challenge for Particle Acceleration in PWN Shocks;469
20.5;17.5 The Energy Dependent Cooling Radius of a PWN;470
20.6;17.6 Pleres Pera or “Filled Bags”;472
20.7;17.7 HESS J1825- 137 and the “ Three Princes of Serendip”;473
20.7.1;17.7.1 The Anomalously Large Size of HESS J1825- 137 and Its Implied SNR Shell;474
20.7.2;17.7.2 The Offset PWN in X-Rays and VHE . -Rays;475
20.7.3;17.7.3 Energy Dependent Morphology and the Cooling Break;476
20.7.4;17.7.4 Conclusion: A Particle Dominated Wind in HESS J1825- 137;480
20.8;17.8 Vela X: The Prototype for Evolutionary Studies;481
20.8.1;17.8.1 HESS Detection of the Vela X “Cocoon”: Radio and X-Ray Correlation;481
20.8.2;17.8.2 Constraints on the Cocoon Field Strength from the Upper Synchrotron Cutoff Energy;484
20.8.3;17.8.3 Diffusion of VHE Particles from the Cocoon;484
20.8.4;17.8.4 No “Missing” Leptonic Component in Vela X;485
20.8.5;17.8.5 The HESS Signal: Hadrons or Leptons?;485
20.8.6;17.8.6 The VHE y -Ray Spectral Break in the Vela X Cocoon;486
20.9;17.9 Summary;487
20.10;References;488
21;High Energy Emission from Pulsars and Pulsar Wind Nebulae;490
21.1;18.1 Introduction;490
21.2;18.2 Standard Pulsar Magnetospheric Models;491
21.3;18.3 Summary of Some Interesting Observed Results in X-Rays and Gamma- Rays;494
21.4;18.4 Polar Cap and Slot Gap Models;496
21.5;18.5 Outer Gap Models ;499
21.5.1;18.5.1 CHR Model;499
21.5.2;18.5.2 A Self-Consistent Outer Gap Model;502
21.5.3;18.5.3 Single Gap Models;504
21.5.4;18.5.4 CRZ Model;506
21.6;18.6 Model Fitting of the Radiation from the Crab Pulsar;511
21.6.1;18.6.1 Phase-Resolved Spectrum of the Crab Pulsar;511
21.6.2;18.6.2 Polarization of the Crab Pulsar;515
21.7;18.7 A Simple Pulsar Wind Model;517
21.8;18.8 Applications to X-Ray Emission ;520
21.8.1;18.8.1 Lx–Lsd Relations from ASCA Data;520
21.8.2;18.8.2 Why Do MSPs in the Field and Those in 47 Tuc Obey Different Lx– Lsd Relation?;523
21.8.3;18.8.3 X-Ray Tails Associated with Pulsars;526
21.9;18.9 Conclusion;526
21.10;References;527
22;High-energy Emission from the Polar Cap and Slot Gap;530
22.1;19.1 Introduction;530
22.2;19.2 Acceleration Near the Polar Cap and Beyond;531
22.2.1;19.2.1 Polar Cap Accelerators;532
22.2.2;19.2.2 Death Lines;534
22.3;19.3 Electric Field Screening and Polar Cap Heating;535
22.4;19.4 Slot Gap Accelerator;538
22.5;19.5 High-energy Radiation ;539
22.5.1;19.5.1 Polar Cap and Slot Gap Cascades;539
22.5.2;19.5.2 Radiation from the High-altitude Slot Gap;541
22.5.3;19.5.3 Relativity, Geometry and Caustics;543
22.5.4;19.5.4 Radiation from Millisecond Pulsars;544
22.6;19.6 Pulsar Emission at Multi-wavelengths;544
22.6.1;19.6.1 Radio Emission Geometry;546
22.6.2;19.6.2 The Global Picture;547
22.7;19.7 Open Questions;548
22.8;References;549
23;Physics of Drifting Sub-pulses in Radio Pulsars;552
23.1;20.1 Introduction;552
23.2;20.2 Basic Pulsar Electrodynamics;554
23.2.1;20.2.1 Electric Circuit;556
23.2.2;20.2.2 Rotational Drift of Wind in Oblique Pulsar;559
23.2.3;20.2.3 Rotational Drift of Wind in Aligned Pulsar;560
23.3;20.3 Models of Drifting Sub-pulses;562
23.3.1;20.3.1 Ruderman and Sutherland Models;563
23.3.2;20.3.2 The Phenomenological Wright-model;564
23.3.3;20.3.3 The Clemens and Rosen Model;565
23.3.4;20.3.4 Drift Wave Models;566
23.3.5;20.3.5 Intermediate Conclusion and Forward Look;567
23.4;20.4 Diocotron Instability Model;568
23.4.1;20.4.1 Equilibrium;569
23.4.2;20.4.2 Instability;573
23.4.3;20.4.3 Numerical Results;574
23.4.4;20.4.4 Applications;576
23.5;20.5 Future Prospects;580
23.6;References;582
24;Soft Gamma-Ray Repeaters and Magnetars;584
24.1;21.1 Introduction;584
24.2;21.2 The Basic Facts;585
24.3;21.3 The Less Certain Facts;588
24.4;21.4 Interpretation;593
24.5;21.5 Magnetar Manifestations;595
24.6;21.6 Open Questions;595
24.7;21.7 Acknowledgments;596
24.8;References;596
25;X-Ray Polarimetry and Its Potential Use for Understanding Neutron Stars;598
25.1;22.1 Introduction;598
25.2;22.2 Background;599
25.3;22.3 Scientific Basis for Neutron Star X-Ray Polarimetry ;600
25.3.1;22.3.1 Radio Pulsars;600
25.3.2;22.3.2 Magnetars;602
25.3.3;22.3.3 XDINSs and CCOs;603
25.3.4;22.3.4 Pulsating X-Ray Binaries;604
25.3.5;22.3.5 Other Applications;606
25.4;22.4 Instrumental Approaches;606
25.4.1;22.4.1 Polarimeter Basics;607
25.4.2;22.4.2 Statistics;608
25.4.3;22.4.3 Crystal Polarimeters;609
25.4.4;22.4.4 Scattering Polarimeters;612
25.4.5;22.4.5 Photo-Electron Tracking Polarimeters;613
25.4.6;22.4.6 X-Ray Polarimeters at the Focus of a Telescope;617
25.4.7;22.4.7 X-Ray Polarimeters without a Telescope;621
25.5;22.5 Discussion and Conclusions;624
25.6;References;626
26;GeV Gamma-Ray Pulsar Detection;629
26.1;23.1 Introduction;629
26.2;23.2 GeV–TeV Gamma Ray Detection;631
26.3;23.3 Atmospheric Cherenkov Detectors;634
26.3.1;23.3.1 VERITAS;637
26.3.2;23.3.2 MAGIC;638
26.3.3;23.3.3 H.E.S.S;640
26.3.4;23.3.4 The Farther Future: 5@5, CTA, and LTT;641
26.4;23.4 Space-Based Observatories;643
26.4.1;23.4.1 AGILE;644
26.4.2;23.4.2 AMS;644
26.5;23.5 GLAST: The Gamma-Ray Large Area Space Telescope;646
26.5.1;23.5.1 LAT: The Large Area Telescope;646
26.5.2;23.5.2 Detailing the Instrument Response;647
26.5.3;23.5.3 Radio Timing of Gamma-Ray Pulsar Candidates;653
26.5.4;23.5.4 Pulsar Science with the GLAST LAT;654
26.6;23.6 Concluding Remarks;654
26.7;References;655
27;Gravitational Waves from Spinning Neutron Stars;658
27.1;24.1 Introduction;658
27.2;24.2 Continuous Gravitational Waves from Neutron Stars;661
27.2.1;24.2.1 Emission Mechanisms for Continuous Gravitational Waves;662
27.2.2;24.2.2 Loudest Expected Signal from Unknown Isolated Neutron Stars;665
27.2.3;24.2.3 The Spin-Down Limit for Known Pulsars;665
27.2.4;24.2.4 Maximum Expected Signal from Accreting Neutron Stars;666
27.3;24.3 Detectors of Gravitational Waves;667
27.3.1;24.3.1 LIGO/GEO600 Sensitivities and Scientific Runs;668
27.4;24.4 Data Analysis of Continuous Gravitational Waves;670
27.4.1;24.4.1 The General Form of the Signal;671
27.4.2;24.4.2 Signals in Noise;673
27.4.3;24.4.3 Frequentist Framework: Hypothesis Testing;674
27.4.4;24.4.4 Bayesian Analysis: Parameter Estimation;677
27.4.5;24.4.5 Parameter Space of Coherent Wide-Parameter Searches;679
27.4.6;24.4.6 Semi-Coherent Methods;680
27.4.7;24.4.7 Hierarchical Searches and Einstein@Home;683
27.5;24.5 Current Status of the Search for Continuous GWs ;684
27.5.1;24.5.1 Overview of Continuous-Wave Searches;684
27.5.2;24.5.2 Results from Completed Searches;685
27.5.3;24.5.3 Ongoing and Future Searches;687
27.5.4;24.5.4 Previous Upper Limits from Other Detectors;688
27.6;24.6 Future Prospects;689
27.7;References;690
28;Acknowledgments;693
29;Index;696