Ashbee / Bignell Pathogenic Yeasts

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-3-642-03150-2
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 365 Seiten

Reihe: The Yeast Handbook

Mycological studies of yeasts are entering a new phase, with the sequencing of multiple fungal genomes informing our understanding of their ability to cause disease and interact with the host. At the same time, the ongoing use of traditional methods in many clinical mycology laboratories continues to provide information for the diagnosis and treatment of patients. This volume reviews various aspects of pathogenic yeasts and what is known about their molecular and cellular biology and virulence, in addition to looking at clinical and laboratory findings. As each chapter is written by a leading expert in the field, this book summarizes in one volume much of the latest research on several pathogenic yeasts, including Candida, Cryptococcus, Malassezia and yeasts of emerging importance. The importance of laboratory diagnosis, antifungal susceptibility testing, antifungal resistance and yeast diseases in animals are reviewed.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Ashbee, Ruth

Bignell, Elaine M.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;112284_1_En_FM1_OnlinePDF;1
2;112284_1_En_1_Chapter_OnlinePDF;9
2.1;1: Comparative Genomic Analysis of Pathogenic Yeasts and the Evolution of Virulence;9
2.1.1;Comparative Genome Analysis;11
2.1.2;Analysis of Basidiomycete Genomes;12
2.1.3;Analysis of Ascomycete Genomes;13
2.1.3.1;The Aspergilli;13
2.1.3.2;Candida Genomes;14
2.1.3.3;Evolution of Gene Families Associated with Virulence;15
2.1.3.4;Analysis of Synteny in Candida Genomes;17
2.1.4;Differential Gene Regulation and Evolution of Virulence;20
2.1.5;References;22
3;112284_1_En_2_Chapter_OnlinePDF;27
3.1;Chapter 2: Molecular Epidemiology of Candida Species;27
3.1.1;Introduction;27
3.1.1.1;Epidemiology of Candidosis;28
3.1.2;Molecular Epidemiology;30
3.1.2.1;DNA Fingerprinting with Dispersed, Repetitive Elements;30
3.1.2.2;Multi-Locus Sequence Typing (MLST) of C. albicans;32
3.1.2.2.1;Defining Clonal Clusters by MLST;35
3.1.2.2.2;Insights on Population Structure of C. albicans from MLST;35
3.1.2.2.3;Epidemiological Investigations with MLST;38
3.1.3;MLST of Non-C. albicans Candida Species;39
3.1.4;Future Directions for Typing of Candida Species;41
3.1.5;Conclusions;42
3.1.6;References;43
4;112284_1_En_3_Chapter_OnlinePDF;48
4.1;Chapter 3: Candida Infections and Modelling Disease;48
4.1.1;Candida Species as Commensals;48
4.1.2;Candida Species Associated with Disease;50
4.1.2.1;Oral Candidiasis;50
4.1.2.2;Vaginal Candidiasis;51
4.1.2.3; Disseminated Candidiasis;52
4.1.3; Modelling Candida Carriage and Infection;54
4.1.3.1; Experimental Models of Candida Infection: The Reductionist Approach;54
4.1.3.1.1;Cell-Based Models;54
4.1.3.1.1.1;Monocyte-Candida Interactions;54
4.1.3.1.1.2;Macrophage-Candida Interactions;55
4.1.3.1.1.3;Neutrophil-Candida Interactions;56
4.1.3.1.1.4; Dendritic Cell-Candida Interactions;56
4.1.3.1.1.5; Epithelial Cell- and Endothelial Cell-Candida Interactions;57
4.1.3.1.2;Reconstituted Human Epithelial Models (RHE) and Tissue Explants;57
4.1.3.2;Whole Animal Approaches;58
4.1.3.2.1;Invertebrate Models;58
4.1.3.2.2;Vertebrate Models;58
4.1.3.2.2.1;Mucosal Models;59
4.1.3.2.2.1.1;Models of Oral and Gastrointestinal Carriage and Infection;59
4.1.3.2.2.1.2;Models of Vaginal Carriage and Infection;60
4.1.3.2.2.1.3;Models of Systemic Infection;61
4.1.3.2.2.2;Gastrointestinal Dissemination;61
4.1.3.2.2.3;Intravenous Challenge;61
4.1.4;References;62
5;112284_1_En_4_Chapter_OnlinePDF;75
5.1;Chapter 4: Candida albicans Cell Wall Mediated Virulence;75
5.1.1;C. albicans Cell Wall Architecture;75
5.1.1.1;Cell Wall Proteins;76
5.1.2;Cell Wall Remodelling During Morphogenesis and Variation in pH;78
5.1.3;Phenotypic Switching;81
5.1.4;Comparative Cell Wall-Omics;81
5.1.5;Glycosylphosphatidylinositol Anchored Cell Wall Proteins;82
5.1.6;Cell Wall Associated Virulence Attributes;82
5.1.6.1;Adhesion;82
5.1.6.1.1;Als family;83
5.1.6.1.2;Eap1;84
5.1.6.1.3;Hwp1;84
5.1.6.1.4;Ywp1;84
5.1.6.1.5;Int1;85
5.1.6.2;Cell Surface Hydrophobicity;85
5.1.6.3;Superoxide Dismutases (SODs);86
5.1.6.4;Phospholipases;86
5.1.6.5;Iron Binding Proteins;87
5.1.6.6;Als3 a Multi-Functional Adhesin, Invasin and Ferritin-Binding Protein;87
5.1.6.7;Biofilm Formation;88
5.1.6.7.1;Interactions with Host Cells;89
5.1.6.7.2;Wall as Potential Source of Novel Therapies;90
5.1.7;Future Perspectives;90
5.1.8;References;91
6;112284_1_En_5_Chapter_OnlinePDF;102
6.1;Chapter 5: Secreted Candida Proteins: Pathogenicitypathogenicity and Host Immunity;102
6.1.1;Introduction;102
6.1.2;The Secretory Pathwaysecretory pathway in Fungi;103
6.1.3;The Secretory Proteins of Candida spp.;104
6.1.4;Non-Covalently Linked Cell Wall Associated Secreted Proteins;104
6.1.5;Candida Proteins Secreted from the Cell;107
6.1.5.1;Candida Secreted Aspartyl Proteinases;107
6.1.5.1.1;Candida Secreted Aspartyl Proteinases: Processing, Activation and Structuresecreted aspartyl proteinasesprocessing, activation;108
6.1.5.1.2;Candida Secreted Aspartyl Proteinases: Role in Pathogenicitysecreted aspartyl proteinasesrole in pathogenicity;109
6.1.5.2;Candida Secreted Phospholipases;113
6.1.5.2.1;Candida Phospholipases: Role in Pathogenicityphospholipasesrole in pathogenicity;114
6.1.5.3;Candida-Secreted Lipases;114
6.1.5.3.1;Candida Lipases: Role in Pathogenicitylipasesrole in pathogenicity;115
6.1.6;Other Secreted Enzymes;115
6.1.7;The Candida Proteomeproteome and secretomesecretome;116
6.1.8;The Host Responsehost response to Candida Secreted Proteins;116
6.1.9;Conclusion;118
6.1.10;References;118
7;112284_1_En_6_Chapter_OnlinePDF;126
7.1;Chapter 6: Yeast Biofilms;126
7.1.1;Introduction;126
7.1.2;Clinical Significance;127
7.1.3;What are Biofilms?;128
7.1.4;Fungal Biofilm Model Systems;129
7.1.5;Biofilm Developmental Characteristics;131
7.1.6;Molecular Mechanisms of Biofilm Development;134
7.1.7;Pathogenesis and Host Immunity;137
7.1.8;Antifungal Resistance;138
7.1.9;Cell-Cell Communication;140
7.1.10;Conclusions;141
7.1.11;References;142
8;112284_1_En_7_Chapter_OnlinePDF;150
8.1;Chapter 7: Cryptococcus: Spectrum of Disease and Treatment;150
8.1.1;Introduction;150
8.1.2;Clinical Presentations;151
8.1.2.1;Risk Factors: Immunosuppressed v Immunocompetent;151
8.1.2.2;C. neoformans v C. gattii;152
8.1.2.3;Central Nervous System (CNS);152
8.1.2.4;Lung;153
8.1.2.5;Other Organs;153
8.1.3;Laboratory Diagnosis;154
8.1.3.1;Microscopy;154
8.1.3.2;Serology;154
8.1.3.3;Culture and Sensitivity;155
8.1.4;Treatment;155
8.1.4.1;Antifungal Therapy;156
8.1.4.1.1;Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis/Disseminated Disease;156
8.1.4.1.1.1;HIV-Infected Patients;156
8.1.4.1.1.2;Organ Transplant Recipients;158
8.1.4.1.1.3;Immunocompetent Patients;158
8.1.4.1.2;Cerebral Cryptococcomas;158
8.1.4.1.3;Pulmonary Disease;159
8.1.4.2;Isolated Cryptococcal Antigenaemia and Screening for Subclinical Infection;159
8.1.4.3;Management of Complications;159
8.1.4.3.1;Raised Intracranial Pressure;159
8.1.4.3.2;Relapse;160
8.1.4.3.3;Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS);160
8.1.4.4;Restoration and Boosting of Host Immunity;161
8.1.5;Prognostic Factors and Outcome;162
8.1.6;References;162
9;112284_1_En_8_Chapter_OnlinePDF;171
9.1;Chapter 8: Typing Species of Cryptococcus and Epidemiology of Cryptococcosis;171
9.1.1;Introduction;171
9.1.2;Molecular Methods;172
9.1.2.1;Molecular Markers;173
9.1.2.2;Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD);174
9.1.2.3;PCR Fingerprinting;175
9.1.2.4;Microsatellites;175
9.1.2.5;Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLP);176
9.1.2.6;PCR-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP);176
9.1.2.7;DNA-DNA Hybridization;177
9.1.2.8;DNA Sequencing;177
9.1.2.9;Method Selection;178
9.1.2.10;Applications of Molecular Typing;178
9.1.2.11;Identification;179
9.1.2.12;Pathogenesis and Phenotypic Strain Variation;180
9.1.2.13;Elucidate the Epidemiology and Ecology of Cryptococcus Species;181
9.1.2.14;Population Genetics of Cryptococcus;182
9.1.3;Ecology and Epidemiology of Cryptococcosis;182
9.1.3.1;C. neoformans;183
9.1.3.2;C. gattii;184
9.1.4;Conclusions;185
9.1.5;References;186
10;112284_1_En_9_Chapter_OnlinePDF;195
10.1;Chapter 9: Environmental Stress-Sensing and Pathogenicity in Cryptococcus neoformans;195
10.1.1;Introduction;195
10.1.2;The Main Phenotypes Elaborating C. neoformans Stress Responses;195
10.1.2.1;Capsule Enlargement;196
10.1.2.2;Biofilm Formation;196
10.1.2.3;Melanin Formation;197
10.1.3;The Genes Involved in the C. neoformans Stress Responses;197
10.1.3.1;Oxidative and Nitrosative Stress Responses;197
10.1.3.1.1;Superoxide Dismutases;198
10.1.3.1.2;Glutathione Peroxidases;198
10.1.3.1.3;Thiol Peroxidase;199
10.1.3.1.4;Thioredoxin;199
10.1.3.1.5;Laccase;199
10.1.3.1.6;Alternative Oxidases;200
10.1.3.1.7;Flavohemoglobin Denitrosylase;200
10.1.3.2;High Temperature Resistance;201
10.1.3.2.1;Trehalose (a-glucopyranosyl-a-d-glucopyranoside);201
10.1.3.2.2;Cyclophilin A;201
10.1.3.3;Iron Deprivation;202
10.1.3.4;Calcium Deprivation;202
10.1.4;Stress-Sensing and -Signaling Pathways in C. neoformans;203
10.1.4.1;Calmodulin/Calcineurin Calcium Mediated Signaling;203
10.1.4.2;The Hog1p MAPK Pathway;204
10.1.4.3;The PKC1 MAPK Signaling Pathway;205
10.1.4.4;The cAMP Signaling Pathway;206
10.1.5;The Main Transcription Factors Involved in the C. neoformans Stress Responses;206
10.1.5.1;Nrg1p;207
10.1.5.2;Atf1p and Yap4p;207
10.1.5.3;Skn1p;207
10.1.5.4;Ssa1p;208
10.1.5.5;Cir1p;208
10.1.6;Conclusion;208
10.1.7;References;209
11;112284_1_En_10_Chapter_OnlinePDF;213
11.1;Chapter 10: Malassezia;213
11.1.1;Introduction;213
11.1.2;Taxonomy of Malassezia;214
11.1.3;Physiology and Biochemistry;215
11.1.3.1;Cell Structure;215
11.1.3.2;Dimorphism;215
11.1.3.3;Lipid Dependence and Culture Requirements;216
11.1.3.4;Metabolite Production;216
11.1.4;Commensalism;217
11.1.5;Role in Disease;218
11.1.5.1;Pityriasis Versicolor;219
11.1.5.2;Seborrhoeic Dermatitis and Dandruff;221
11.1.5.3;Atopic Eczema;222
11.1.5.4;Other Cutaneous Diseases;225
11.1.5.5;Systemic Diseases;226
11.1.6;Summary and Conclusions;226
11.1.7;References;227
12;112284_1_En_11_Chapter_OnlinePDF;235
12.1;Chapter 11: Emerging Systemic Yeast Pathogens;235
12.1.1;Introduction;235
12.1.2;Non-albicans Candida;236
12.1.2.1;Microbiology;236
12.1.2.2;Epidemiology;236
12.1.2.3;Clinical Manifestations;237
12.1.2.4;Diagnosis;237
12.1.2.5;Antifungal Susceptibility, Therapy and Outcome;237
12.1.3;Trichosporon Species;238
12.1.3.1;Microbiology;238
12.1.3.2;Epidemiology;238
12.1.3.3;Clinical Manifestations;239
12.1.3.4;Diagnosis;239
12.1.3.5;Antifungal Susceptibility, Therapy and Outcome;239
12.1.4; Rhodotorula;240
12.1.4.1;Microbiology;240
12.1.4.2;Epidemiology;240
12.1.4.3;Clinical Manifestations;241
12.1.4.4;Diagnosis;241
12.1.4.5;Antifungal Susceptibility, Therapy and Outcome;241
12.1.5; Blastoschizomyces capitatus;241
12.1.5.1;Microbiology;241
12.1.5.2;Epidemiology;242
12.1.5.3;Clinical Manifestations;242
12.1.5.4;Diagnosis;242
12.1.5.5;Antifungal Susceptibility, Therapy and Outcome;243
12.1.6; Saccharomyces;243
12.1.6.1;Microbiology;243
12.1.6.2;Epidemiology;243
12.1.6.3;Clinical Manifestations;244
12.1.6.4;Diagnosis;244
12.1.6.5;Antifungal Susceptibility, Therapy and Outcome;244
12.1.7;Malassezia;245
12.1.7.1;Microbiology;245
12.1.7.2;Epidemiology;245
12.1.7.3;Clinical Manifestations;245
12.1.7.4;Diagnosis;246
12.1.7.5;Antifungal Susceptibility, Therapy and Outcome;247
12.1.8;Pichia Species;247
12.1.8.1;Microbiology;247
12.1.8.2;Epidemiology;247
12.1.8.3;Clinical Manifestations;248
12.1.8.4;Diagnosis;248
12.1.8.5;Antifungal Susceptibility, Therapy and Outcome;248
12.1.9;Conclusions;249
12.1.10;References;249
13;112284_1_En_12_Chapter_OnlinePDF;256
13.1;Chapter 12: Yeast Pathogens of Domestic Animals;256
13.1.1;Introduction;256
13.1.2;Candida;257
13.1.2.1;Cat and Dog;259
13.1.2.2;Cattle;260
13.1.2.2.1;Bovine Abortion;260
13.1.2.2.2;Bovine Mastitis;260
13.1.2.3;Horse;261
13.1.2.4;Poultry;262
13.1.2.5;Swine;263
13.1.3;Cryptococcus;265
13.1.4;Cryptococcus neoformans;266
13.1.4.1;Cryptococcus gattii;268
13.1.5;Malassezia;270
13.1.5.1;Malassezia pachydermatis;270
13.1.5.2;Lipid-dependent Species;273
13.1.6;Concluding Remarks;275
13.1.7;References;276
14;112284_1_En_13_Chapter_OnlinePDF;283
14.1;Chapter 13: Laboratory Diagnosis of Yeast Infections;283
14.1.1;Introduction;283
14.1.2;Direct Microscopy;284
14.1.2.1;Direct Microscopy of Unfixed Specimens;284
14.1.2.2;Histopathological Examination;286
14.1.3;Blood Culture Systems;286
14.1.4;Culture Media;288
14.1.5;Methods for Identification of Yeasts;289
14.1.5.1;The Germ Tube Test;289
14.1.5.2;Chlamydospores, Hyphae and Pseudohyphae;291
14.1.5.3;Capsule Formation;292
14.1.5.4;Structures Associated with Sexual Reproduction in Yeasts;292
14.1.5.5;Assimilation and Fermentation in Yeasts;293
14.1.5.6;Other Physiological Tests;293
14.1.5.7;Enzyme-Based Yeast Identification Systems;295
14.1.5.8;Commercial Yeast Assimilation Panels;296
14.1.5.9;Immunological Identification of Yeast Isolates;297
14.1.5.10;Molecular Identification of Yeast Isolates;297
14.1.5.11;Peptide Nucleic Acids;300
14.1.6;Algorithms for Identification;301
14.1.7;Non-Culture-Based Methods of Laboratory Diagnosis;301
14.1.8;The Future of the Diagnosis of Yeast Infections;302
14.1.9;References;303
15;112284_1_En_14_Chapter_OnlinePDF;312
15.1;Chapter 14: Antifungal Susceptibility Testing and Therapy;312
15.1.1;Antifungal Susceptibility Testing;312
15.1.1.1;An Update on the AST Standardization Process;312
15.1.1.2;Commercial Methods for AST of Yeasts;315
15.1.2;Epidemiology of Resistance of Yeasts In Vitro;316
15.1.3;Therapy of Yeast Infections;318
15.1.3.1;Therapy of Candida Infections;318
15.1.3.2;Therapy of Infections due to Cryptococcus;322
15.1.3.3;Therapy of Other Yeast Infections;323
15.1.4;References;323
16;112284_1_En_15_Chapter_OnlinePDF;328
16.1;15: Mechanisms of Multidrug Resistance in Fungal Pathogens;328
16.1.1;Introduction;328
16.1.2;Resistance Mechanisms Mediated by Antifungal Efflux: Azoles as an Exemplary Case;332
16.1.2.1;Upregulation of Membrane Efflux Transporters;333
16.1.2.2;Efflux Mediated by ABC Transporters;334
16.1.2.3;Efflux Mediated by MFS Transporters;337
16.1.3;Factors Modifying the Activity of Multidrug Transporters;339
16.1.3.1;Plasma Membrane Composition and Impact on Transporter Functions;339
16.1.3.2;Posttranslational Modifications;339
16.1.4;Molecular Mechanisms of Multidrug Transporter Regulation;340
16.1.4.1;Experimental Approaches for the Identification of cis- and trans-Elements Regulating Multidrug Transporters Expression;340
16.1.4.1.1;Model Systems and Their Application to Fungal Pathogen Research;340
16.1.4.1.2;Systematic Analysis of cis-Acting elements in the Promoters of Multidrug Transporters;342
16.1.4.1.3;Transcriptional Profiling for Regulator Identification;343
16.1.4.2;Coactivators in the Regulation of Multidrug Resistance Genes;344
16.1.4.3;Conservation of Multidrug Resistance Regulators in Pathogenic Fungi;345
16.1.4.4;Gain-of-Function Mutations in Transcription Factors Regulating Efflux Genes;346
16.1.4.5;Chromosomal Rearrangements Affecting Multidrug Transporter Expression;349
16.1.5;Strategies to Combat Multidrug Resistance in Yeast;350
16.1.6;Conclusion;350
16.1.7;References;351
17.1;: Index;360