Asaka / Okuzaki Soft Actuators

Materials, Modeling, Applications, and Future Perspectives
1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-4-431-54767-9
Verlag: Springer Japan
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 492 Seiten

The subject of this book is the current comprehensive research and development of soft actuators, and encompasses interdisciplinary studies of materials science, mechanics, electronics, robotics and bioscience. As an example, the book includes current research on actuators based on biomaterials to provide future perspectives for artificial muscle technology. Readers can obtain detailed, useful information about materials, methods of synthesis, fabrication and measurements. The topics covered here not only promote further research and development of soft actuators but also lead the way to their utilization and industrialization. One outstanding feature of the book is that it contains many color figures, diagrams and photographs clearly describing the mechanism, apparatus and motion of soft actuators. The chapter on modeling is conducive to more extensive design work in materials and devices and is especially useful in the development of practical applications. Readers can acquire the newest technology and information about the basic science and practical applications of flexible, lightweight and noiseless soft actuators, which are quite unlike conventional mechanical engines and electric motors. The new ideas offered in this volume will provide inspiration and encouragement to researchers and developers as they explore new fields of applications for soft actuators.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Asaka, Kinji

Okuzaki, Hidenori

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;8
3;Part I: Introduction;12
3.1;Chapter 1: Progress and Current Status of Materials and Properties of Soft Actuators;13
3.1.1;1.1 Introduction;13
3.1.2;1.2 Gel Actuators;15
3.1.2.1;1.2.1 pH-Responsive Gels;15
3.1.2.2;1.2.2 Salt-Responsive Gels;15
3.1.2.3;1.2.3 Solvent-Responsive Gels;15
3.1.2.4;1.2.4 Thermo-Responsive Gels;16
3.1.2.5;1.2.5 Electro-Responsive Gels;16
3.1.2.6;1.2.6 Photo-Responsive Gels;19
3.1.2.7;1.2.7 Magneto-Responsive Gels;20
3.1.3;1.3 Conductive Polymer Actuators;20
3.1.3.1;1.3.1 Electro-Responsive Conductive Polymers;20
3.1.3.2;1.3.2 Humidity-Responsive Conductive Polymers;21
3.1.4;1.4 Elastomer Actuators;22
3.1.4.1;1.4.1 Electro-Responsive Elastomers;22
3.1.4.2;1.4.2 Photo-Responsive Elastomers;23
3.1.5;1.5 Carbon Nanotube Actuators;23
3.1.6;1.6 Bio-Actuators;24
3.1.7;References;24
3.2;Chapter 2: Current Status of Applications and Markets of Soft Actuators;29
3.2.1;2.1 Introduction;29
3.2.2;2.2 Current Status of Applications of Soft Actuators;30
3.2.2.1;2.2.1 Groundbreaking Studies;30
3.2.2.2;2.2.2 Current Status of Technology of EAP Actuators for Applications;31
3.2.2.3;2.2.3 Consumer Electronics;31
3.2.2.4;2.2.4 Biomedical Devices;33
3.2.2.5;2.2.5 Robotics;34
3.2.2.6;2.2.6 Other Applications of Soft Actuators;35
3.2.2.7;2.2.7 Energy Harvesting and Sensor;35
3.2.3;2.3 Current and Expected Markets for Soft Actuators;37
3.2.4;2.4 Conclusion;40
3.2.5;References;40
4;Part II: Materials of Soft Actuators: Thermo-Driven Soft Actuators;41
4.1;Chapter 3: Electromagnetic Heating;42
4.1.1;3.1 Introduction;42
4.1.2;3.2 Surface Modification of CMCs;44
4.1.3;3.3 Preparation of Composite Gels;45
4.1.4;3.4 Sensitivity of Composite Gels Against Electromagnetic Wave;47
4.1.5;3.5 Conclusions;49
4.1.6;References;50
4.2;Chapter 4: Thermo-Responsive Nanofiber Mats Fabricated by Electrospinning;51
4.2.1;4.1 Introduction;51
4.2.2;4.2 Experimental;52
4.2.3;4.3 Results and Discussion;54
4.2.3.1;4.3.1 Synthesis and Characterization of PNIPA and PNIPA-SAX;54
4.2.3.2;4.3.2 Electrospinning and Morphology of PNIPA and PNIPA-SAX;55
4.2.3.3;4.3.3 Thermo-Response of Nanofiber Mats;57
4.2.4;4.4 Conclusions;61
4.2.5;References;61
4.3;Chapter 5: Self-Oscillating Gels;63
4.3.1;5.1 Introduction;63
4.3.2;5.2 Design of Self-Oscillating Polymer Gel;64
4.3.2.1;5.2.1 Oscillating Chemical Reaction: The Belousov-Zhabotinsky Reaction;64
4.3.2.2;5.2.2 Mechanism of Self-Oscillation;65
4.3.2.3;5.2.3 Self-Oscillating Behavior on Several Scales;65
4.3.3;5.3 Control of Self-Oscillating Chemomechanical Behaviors;68
4.3.3.1;5.3.1 Concentration and Temperature Dependence of Oscillation;68
4.3.3.2;5.3.2 On-Off Regulation of Self-Oscillation by External Stimuli;68
4.3.3.3;5.3.3 Control of Self-Oscillating Behaviors by Designing Chemical Structure of Gel;69
4.3.3.4;5.3.4 Remarkable Swelling-Deswelling Changes by Assembled Self-Oscillating Microgels;70
4.3.3.5;5.3.5 Comb-Type Self-Oscillating Gel;70
4.3.4;5.4 Design of Biomimetic Soft-Actuators;71
4.3.4.1;5.4.1 Ciliary Motion Actuator Using Self-Oscillating Gel (Artificial Cilia);71
4.3.4.2;5.4.2 Self-Walking Gel;72
4.3.4.3;5.4.3 Self-Propelled Motion;75
4.3.4.4;5.4.4 Theoretical Simulation of the Self-Oscillaiting Gel;76
4.3.5;5.5 Design of Autonomous Mass Transport Systems;76
4.3.5.1;5.5.1 Self-Driven gel Conveyer: Autonomous Transportation on the Self-Oscillating Gel Surface by Peristaltic Motion;76
4.3.5.2;5.5.2 Autonomous Intestine-Like Motion of Tubular Self-Oscillating Gel;78
4.3.5.3;5.5.3 Self-Oscillating Polymer Brushes;79
4.3.6;5.6 Self-Oscillating Fluids;80
4.3.6.1;5.6.1 Transmittance and Viscosity Oscillation of Polymer Solution and Microgel Dispersion;80
4.3.6.2;5.6.2 Autonomous Viscosity Oscillation by Reversible Complex Formation of Terpyridine-Terminated PEG in the BZ Reaction;82
4.3.6.3;5.6.3 Self-Oscillating Micelles;83
4.3.6.4;5.6.4 BZ Reaction in Protic Ionic Liquids;84
4.3.7;5.7 Future Prospects;84
4.3.8;References;84
5;Part III: Materials of Soft Actuators: Electro-Driven Soft Actuators;87
5.1;Chapter 6: Ionic Conductive Polymers;88
5.1.1;6.1 Introduction;88
5.1.2;6.2 Fabrication Methods;90
5.1.2.1;6.2.1 Ionic Polymers;90
5.1.2.2;6.2.2 Plating Methods;91
5.1.3;6.3 Evaluation Techniques of IPMC;91
5.1.4;6.4 Recent Developments;93
5.1.4.1;6.4.1 IPMC Containing Ionic Liquids;93
5.1.4.2;6.4.2 Fabrication Techniques for Miniaturized IPMCs;95
5.1.4.3;6.4.3 Materials;97
5.1.5;6.5 Conclusion;97
5.1.6;References;97
5.2;Chapter 7: Conducting Polymers;101
5.2.1;7.1 Introduction;101
5.2.2;7.2 Mechanism of Actuation;103
5.2.2.1;7.2.1 Electrochemomechanical Actuation;104
5.2.2.2;7.2.2 Water Vapor Sorption Based Actuation;105
5.2.3;7.3 Measurement of Actuation;105
5.2.4;7.4 Characteristics and Performance;106
5.2.4.1;7.4.1 Basic Characteristics in Conducting Polymer Actuators;106
5.2.4.2;7.4.2 Polypyrrole Actuator;108
5.2.4.3;7.4.3 Polyaniline Actuator;108
5.2.4.4;7.4.4 Polyalkylthiphene and PEDOT Actuators;110
5.2.4.5;7.4.5 Ionic Liquids;110
5.2.5;7.5 Creep and Related Phenomena;111
5.2.6;7.6 Conclusion;112
5.2.7;References;113
5.3;Chapter 8: Humidity-Sensitive Conducting Polymer Actuators;116
5.3.1;8.1 Introduction;116
5.3.2;8.2 Experimental;117
5.3.3;8.3 Results and Discussion;118
5.3.3.1;8.3.1 Specific Surface Area;118
5.3.3.2;8.3.2 Water Vapor Sorption;119
5.3.3.3;8.3.3 Contraction Under Electric Field;121
5.3.3.4;8.3.4 Stress Generation and Modulus Change;124
5.3.3.5;8.3.5 Work Capacity and Energy Efficiency;126
5.3.3.6;8.3.6 Applications to Linear Actuators;126
5.3.4;8.4 Conclusions;129
5.3.5;References;129
5.4;Chapter 9: Carbon Nanotube/Ionic Liquid Composites;132
5.4.1;9.1 Introduction;132
5.4.2;9.2 Fabrication of Bucky Gel Actuator and the Actuation Mechanism;133
5.4.3;9.3 Measurements;134
5.4.4;9.4 Influence of ILs;135
5.4.5;9.5 Nano-Carbon Materials;138
5.4.6;9.6 Improving the Actuation Properties by Using Additives;139
5.4.7;9.7 Application;142
5.4.8;9.8 Conclusions;143
5.4.9;References;143
5.5;Chapter 10: Ion Gels for Ionic Polymer Actuators;145
5.5.1;10.1 Introduction;145
5.5.2;10.2 Materials for Ionic Polymer Actuators Using Ionic Liquids;147
5.5.3;10.3 Polymer Actuator Prepared by Self-Assembly of an ABA-Triblock Copolymer;148
5.5.4;10.4 Ionic Polymer Actuator Based on a Multi-Block Copolymer and Its Driving Mechanism;150
5.5.5;10.5 Sulfonated Polyimide for a High-Performance Ionic Polymer Actuator;154
5.5.6;References;157
5.6;Chapter 11: Ionic Liquid/Polyurethane/PEDOT:PSS Composite Actuators;161
5.6.1;11.1 Introduction;161
5.6.2;11.2 Experimental;162
5.6.3;11.3 Results and Discussion;163
5.6.3.1;11.3.1 Mechanical Properties of IL/PU Gels;163
5.6.3.2;11.3.2 Electrical Properties of IL/PU Gels;164
5.6.3.3;11.3.3 EAP Actuating Behavior of IL/PU/PEDOT:PSS Composites;166
5.6.4;11.4 Conclusions;170
5.6.5;References;171
5.7;Chapter 12: Dielectric Gels;172
5.7.1;12.1 General Background;173
5.7.2;12.2 Electroactive Dielectric Actuators;174
5.7.2.1;12.2.1 Gels Swollen with Dielectric Solvent;174
5.7.2.1.1;12.2.1.1 Behavior of Dielectric Solvent Under dc Electric Field;174
5.7.2.1.2;12.2.1.2 Highly Swollen Chemically Crosslinked Dielectric Gel;175
5.7.2.2;12.2.2 Possibility of Elastomers as Electroactive Dielectric Actuator;176
5.7.2.3;12.2.3 Plasticized Polymer (PVC Gel);177
5.7.2.4;12.2.4 Solid Crystalline Polymer Film;179
5.7.3;12.3 Electro-Optical Functions;180
5.7.4;12.4 Mechano-Electric Functions;181
5.7.5;12.5 Concluding Remarks;182
5.7.6;References;183
5.8;Chapter 13: Dielectric Elastomers;186
5.8.1;13.1 Introduction;186
5.8.2;13.2 Background on DE Artificial Muscles;187
5.8.3;13.3 Principle of Operation of DEs;188
5.8.4;13.4 Materials, Fabrication, Performance and Operating Considerations of DE Actuators;190
5.8.5;13.5 Application of DE Actuators;191
5.8.6;13.6 Principle of DE Generators;192
5.8.7;13.7 Innovative DC Generation System by DE Generators;194
5.8.8;13.8 Future of DE System;196
5.8.8.1;13.8.1 Toward the Future;196
5.8.8.1.1;13.8.1.1 Super Artificial Muscle;196
5.8.8.1.2;13.8.1.2 Carbon Management;196
5.8.9;References;197
5.9;Chapter 14: Development of Actuators Using Slide Ring Materials and Their Various Applications;199
5.9.1;14.1 Introduction;199
5.9.2;14.2 Development of Dielectric Elastomer Actuator;200
5.9.3;14.3 Application Development;201
5.9.3.1;14.3.1 Application as Artificial Muscle;201
5.9.3.2;14.3.2 Application to General Machinery;203
5.9.4;14.4 For the Future;204
5.9.5;References;204
5.10;Chapter 15: Piezoelectric Polymers;205
5.10.1;15.1 Introduction;205
5.10.2;15.2 Macroscopic Piezoelectricity of Polymers;206
5.10.3;15.3 Typical Piezoelectric Polymers in Practical Use;208
5.10.3.1;15.3.1 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF);208
5.10.3.2;15.3.2 Poly-l-Lactic Acid (PLLA);210
5.10.3.2.1;15.3.2.1 Improving the Piezoelectricity of PLLA Films;211
5.10.3.2.2;15.3.2.2 PLLA Fiber Actuator;213
5.10.3.3;15.3.3 Cellular and Porous Electrets;214
5.10.4;15.4 Polymeric Composite Systems;215
5.10.5;15.5 Summary;216
5.10.6;References;216
6;Part IV: Materials of Soft Actuators: Light-Driven Soft Actuators;218
6.1;Chapter 16: Spiropyran-Functionalized Hydrogels;219
6.1.1;16.1 Introduction;219
6.1.2;16.2 Past Researches on Photoresponsive Hydrogels;220
6.1.3;16.3 Spiropyran-Functionalized Hydrogel Actuators;220
6.1.3.1;16.3.1 Mechanism and Characteristics;220
6.1.3.2;16.3.2 Bending of Rod Actuator;222
6.1.3.3;16.3.3 Surface Profile Modulation of Sheet Actuator;224
6.1.3.4;16.3.4 On-demand Formation of Arbitrary Microchannel;225
6.1.3.5;16.3.5 Individual Control of Microvalve Array;226
6.1.4;16.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook;227
6.1.5;References;228
6.2;Chapter 17: Photomechanical Energy Conversion with Cross-Linked Liquid-Crystalline Polymers;230
6.2.1;17.1 Introduction;230
6.2.2;17.2 Light-Driven Polymer Actuators;231
6.2.2.1;17.2.1 Photochromism;231
6.2.2.2;17.2.2 Photochemical Reaction;232
6.2.2.3;17.2.3 Photothermal Effect;234
6.2.3;17.3 Photomechanical Property of Cross-Linked Liquid-Crystalline Polymers;234
6.2.3.1;17.3.1 Fabrication of Cross-Linked LC Polymers;234
6.2.3.2;17.3.2 Photoinduced Deformation of LC Polymers;235
6.2.3.3;17.3.3 Light-Driven Polymer Actuators Based on Cross-Linked LC Polymers;236
6.2.4;17.4 Conclusion;240
6.2.5;References;240
6.3;Chapter 18: Photoredox Reaction;243
6.3.1;18.1 Introduction;243
6.3.2;18.2 Electrochemical Swelling and Shrinking of the Gel;244
6.3.3;18.3 UV-Induced Swelling of the Gel and Shrinking in the Dark;245
6.3.4;18.4 Partial Changes of the Gel Morphology;247
6.3.5;18.5 Application of the Plasmonic Photoelectrochemicstry to Actuators;247
6.3.6;18.6 UV-Induced Swelling and Visible Light-Induced Shrinking of the Gel;249
6.3.7;18.7 Conclusions;250
6.3.8;References;250
7;Part V: Materials of Soft Actuators: Magneto-Driven Soft Actuators;251
7.1;Chapter 19: Magnetic Fluid Composite Gels;252
7.1.1;19.1 Introduction;252
7.1.2;19.2 Magnetic Fluid;253
7.1.2.1;19.2.1 Various Hydrodynamic Characteristics and Behavior;253
7.1.2.2;19.2.2 Deformation of Magnetic Fluid by Magnetic Field;254
7.1.2.2.1;19.2.2.1 Conical Meniscus;254
7.1.2.2.2;19.2.2.2 Swelling of the Interface by the Magnetic Field;254
7.1.2.2.3;19.2.2.3 Magnetic Levitation;254
7.1.2.2.4;19.2.2.4 Application of Magnetic Fluid;255
7.1.3;19.3 Magnetic Fluid Composite Gels;256
7.1.3.1;19.3.1 Magnetostriction of Magnetic Fluid Immobilized Gel;256
7.1.3.1.1;19.3.1.1 Immobilization Magnetic Fluid in the Gels;256
7.1.3.1.2;19.3.1.2 Morphology of the Magnetic Fluid Gels;256
7.1.3.1.3;19.3.1.3 Magneto-Striction of Magnetic Fluid Immobilized Gel;257
7.1.3.2;19.3.2 Structural Change of Magnetic Fluid Gels Induced by Magnetic Field [19];258
7.1.4;19.4 The Applications of Magnetic Fluid Composite Gels;262
7.1.4.1;19.4.1 Magnetite Immobilization in the Gel by Complexation Reaction;262
7.1.4.2;19.4.2 Release Control by Magnetic Field;264
7.1.4.3;19.4.3 Encapsulation of Magnetic Fluid for Display Device;265
7.1.5;19.5 Conclusion;266
7.1.6;References;267
7.2;Chapter 20: Magnetic Particle Composite Gels;268
7.2.1;20.1 Introduction;268
7.2.2;20.2 Magnetically Driven Actuators Made of Soft Materials;269
7.2.2.1;20.2.1 Magnetic Gel Pumps;269
7.2.2.2;20.2.2 Rotational Motion of Magnetic Gel Beads;270
7.2.2.3;20.2.3 Magnetic Gel Valves;271
7.2.3;20.3 Magnetic Soft Materials with Variable Viscoelasticity;272
7.2.4;20.4 Conclusion;279
7.2.5;References;280
8;Part VI: Modeling;282
8.1;Chapter 21: Molecular Mechanism of Electrically Induced Volume Change of Porous Electrodes;283
8.1.1;21.1 Introduction;283
8.1.2;21.2 Model;284
8.1.3;21.3 The Monte Carlo Simulation;285
8.1.4;21.4 Thermodynamic Behaviors of Ions in Porous Electrodes;286
8.1.4.1;21.4.1 Effects of Porosity;286
8.1.4.2;21.4.2 Some Simulation Results and Their Implications;287
8.1.4.3;21.4.3 Comparison with Experimentally Proposed Theories;290
8.1.5;21.5 Conclusions;292
8.1.6;References;292
8.2;Chapter 22: Material Modeling;294
8.2.1;22.1 Ionic Conducting Polymer Actuators;294
8.2.2;22.2 Computational Modeling of Electrochemical Response of Ionic Conducting Polymer Actuators;295
8.2.2.1;22.2.1 Forward Motion;296
8.2.2.2;22.2.2 Backward Motion;297
8.2.3;22.3 Three-Dimensional Mechanical Response Analysis of Nafion Actuators;298
8.2.4;22.4 Conducting Polymer Actuators;300
8.2.5;22.5 Computational Modeling of Electrochemical-Poroelastic Response of Conducting Polymer Actuators;301
8.2.5.1;22.5.1 Stiffness Equation of Poroelastic Solid;301
8.2.5.2;22.5.2 Poisson´s Equation for Pressure;302
8.2.5.3;22.5.3 Evolution Equation for Volumetric Strain Rate;303
8.2.5.4;22.5.4 Ionic Transport Equation;304
8.2.5.5;22.5.5 Computational Procedure;304
8.2.6;22.6 Electrochemical-Poroelastic Response Analysis of Polypyrrole Actuators with Solid Electrolyte;304
8.2.7;References;306
8.3;Chapter 23: Distributed Parameter System Modeling;308
8.3.1;23.1 Introduction;308
8.3.2;23.2 Physics of Ionic Polymer-Metal Composite;309
8.3.2.1;23.2.1 Electrical Model;309
8.3.2.2;23.2.2 Electro-Mechanical Coupling Model: Electro-Stress Diffusion Coupling Model (Yamaue´s Model);310
8.3.2.3;23.2.3 Mechanical Model;311
8.3.3;23.3 The Simplest Approximation: Linear Time Invariant State Space Equation;311
8.3.3.1;23.3.1 General Description of State Space Model and Method of Numerical Simulation;311
8.3.3.2;23.3.2 Approximation of Partial Differential Equations: Separation of Variables and Derivation of the State Space Model;312
8.3.3.2.1;23.3.2.1 Electrical System;312
8.3.3.2.2;23.3.2.2 Electro-Mechanical Coupling System;312
8.3.3.2.3;23.3.2.3 Mechanical System;315
8.3.3.2.4;23.3.2.4 Interconnection of Sub-Systems;316
8.3.3.3;23.3.3 Simulation;317
8.3.4;23.4 Conclusion;318
8.3.5;References;319
8.4;Chapter 24: Modeling and Feedback Control of Electro-Active Polymer Actuators;321
8.4.1;24.1 Introduction;321
8.4.2;24.2 Modeling and Actuation Methods for Electro-Active Polymer Actuators;322
8.4.2.1;24.2.1 Modeling Methods;322
8.4.2.2;24.2.2 Actuation Method;323
8.4.2.3;24.2.3 Control Research for Ionic Polymer Actuators;324
8.4.3;24.3 Deformation Control;324
8.4.3.1;24.3.1 PID Control;324
8.4.3.2;24.3.2 2DOF Control Based on the Identified Model;325
8.4.3.3;24.3.3 Servo Control;327
8.4.4;24.4 Force Control;328
8.4.4.1;24.4.1 Modeling Method for Force Control;328
8.4.4.2;24.4.2 Robust PID Force Control [34];331
8.4.5;24.5 Conclusion;333
8.4.6;References;333
8.5;Chapter 25: Motion Design-A Gel Robot Approach;336
8.5.1;25.1 Gel Robot Approach;336
8.5.2;25.2 Agent Model of Electroactive Polymers;337
8.5.3;25.3 Control System Design based on the Agent Model;338
8.5.4;25.4 Turning Over Motion Design;338
8.5.4.1;25.4.1 Simulation of Deformation of the Electroactive Polymer Gel in Applied Electric Field;338
8.5.4.1.1;25.4.1.1 Migration of Surfactant Molecules Driven by the Electric Field;339
8.5.4.1.2;25.4.1.2 Adsorption of Surfactant Molecules to the Polymers;339
8.5.4.1.3;25.4.1.3 Gel Deformation Caused by Adsorption of Surfactant Molecules;340
8.5.4.1.4;25.4.1.4 Summary;340
8.5.4.2;25.4.2 Definition of Utility Function for Achieving Turning Over Motion;341
8.5.4.2.1;25.4.2.1 Abstraction of the Objective Motion;341
8.5.4.2.2;25.4.2.2 Spatially Varying Electric Field to Move the Center of the Gel;342
8.5.4.2.3;25.4.2.3 Selection of a Set of Operators;342
8.5.4.2.4;25.4.2.4 Phase Diagram for Switching of Operators;343
8.5.4.3;25.4.3 Application of Condition Action Rules;345
8.5.5;25.5 Discussion;347
8.5.6;References;347
8.6;Chapter 26: Motion Control;348
8.6.1;26.1 Introduction;348
8.6.2;26.2 Contraction Type PVC Gel Actuator;349
8.6.2.1;26.2.1 Configuration of a Contraction Type Actuator;349
8.6.2.2;26.2.2 Characteristics of the PVC Gel Actuator;350
8.6.3;26.3 Modeling and Motion Control;353
8.6.3.1;26.3.1 Modeling of the PVC Gel Actuator;353
8.6.3.1.1;26.3.1.1 Modeling by the Electric Impedance Measurement;353
8.6.3.2;26.3.2 Relationship Between the Current and Contraction Stress;355
8.6.3.3;26.3.3 Relationship Between the Contraction Stress and Strain;356
8.6.3.3.1;26.3.3.1 Modeling the Whole System of the PVC Gel Actuator;356
8.6.3.4;26.3.4 Control of the PVC Gel Actuator;357
8.6.3.4.1;26.3.4.1 Control Law;357
8.6.3.4.2;26.3.4.2 Determination of Gains;357
8.6.3.4.3;26.3.4.3 Feedback Control;358
8.6.4;26.4 Conclusions;359
8.6.5;References;360
9;Part VII: Applications;362
9.1;Chapter 27: Application of Nano-Carbon Actuator to Braille Display;363
9.1.1;27.1 Introduction;363
9.1.2;27.2 Ionic Electro-Active Polymer (EAP) Actuators Based on Nano-Carbon Electrodes;364
9.1.3;27.3 Goal of Braille Display Development;365
9.1.3.1;27.3.1 Specification of Braille Dots;365
9.1.3.2;27.3.2 Specifications of Braille Size;365
9.1.4;27.4 Development of Direct Drive Type of Braille Display [4];365
9.1.4.1;27.4.1 Layout and Shape of Actuators;365
9.1.4.2;27.4.2 Support and Wiring of Actuators;366
9.1.4.3;27.4.3 Actuator Drive Circuit;368
9.1.4.4;27.4.4 Braille Display Controller;368
9.1.4.5;27.4.5 Direct Drive Type of Braille Display;370
9.1.5;27.5 Development of Braille Display with Latching Mechanism [5];370
9.1.5.1;27.5.1 Policy of Developing Latching Mechanism;371
9.1.5.2;27.5.2 Study and Decision on the Latching Mechanism;371
9.1.5.3;27.5.3 Braille Display with Latching Mechanism;372
9.1.6;27.6 Latest Status on Actuator Development [42];373
9.1.7;27.7 Ethical and Safety Issues in Test Environment;374
9.1.8;27.8 Conclusions;374
9.1.9;27.9 Other Examples of Actuator Application to Products;375
9.1.10;References;375
9.2;Chapter 28: Underwater Soft Robots;377
9.2.1;28.1 Introduction;378
9.2.2;28.2 Autonomous Ray-Like Robot;379
9.2.2.1;28.2.1 Development of the Ray-Like Robot;379
9.2.2.1.1;28.2.1.1 Design of the Fin Using IPMC;379
9.2.2.1.2;28.2.1.2 Electrical Devices for Autonomous Operation;380
9.2.2.2;28.2.2 Design of the Control Input;380
9.2.2.2.1;28.2.2.1 Traveling Wave of the Fin;380
9.2.2.2.2;28.2.2.2 Design of the Voltage Input to the Actuators;381
9.2.2.3;28.2.3 Experiments;381
9.2.2.3.1;28.2.3.1 Measurement of the Propulsion Speed;382
9.2.2.3.2;28.2.3.2 Measurement of the Amplitude of the Traveling Wave;382
9.2.2.3.3;28.2.3.3 Discussions;383
9.2.3;28.3 Quadruped Robot with Fully Polymer Body;384
9.2.3.1;28.3.1 Development of the Quadruped Robot;384
9.2.3.2;28.3.2 Design of the Control Input;386
9.2.3.2.1;28.3.2.1 Design of the Walking Pattern, Gait;386
9.2.3.2.2;28.3.2.2 Feedforward Controller for Smoothing the Voltage Input;387
9.2.3.3;28.3.3 Experiment;387
9.2.3.3.1;28.3.3.1 Method;387
9.2.3.3.2;28.3.3.2 Results and Discussions;388
9.2.4;28.4 Conclusion;389
9.2.5;References;390
9.3;Chapter 29: IPMC Actuator-Based Multifunctional Underwater Microrobots;392
9.3.1;29.1 Introduction;393
9.3.2;29.2 Biomimetic Locomotion;395
9.3.2.1;29.2.1 IPMC Actuators;395
9.3.2.2;29.2.2 Bio-Inspired Locomotion;396
9.3.2.2.1;29.2.2.1 Stick Insect-Inspired Walking Locomotion;396
9.3.2.2.2;29.2.2.2 Jellyfish-Like Floating Locomotion;397
9.3.2.2.3;29.2.2.3 Butterfly-Inspired Swimming Locomotion;397
9.3.2.2.4;29.2.2.4 Inchworm-Inspired Crawling Locomotion;398
9.3.3;29.3 Developed Microrobots;398
9.3.4;29.4 Proposed Multifunctional Lobster-Like Microrobot;400
9.3.4.1;29.4.1 Actual Lobsters;400
9.3.4.2;29.4.2 Proposed Lobster-Like Microrobot;401
9.3.4.3;29.4.3 Crawling and Rotating Mechanism;401
9.3.4.4;29.4.4 Floating Mechanism;402
9.3.4.5;29.4.5 Grasping Mechanism;403
9.3.4.6;29.4.6 Control System;403
9.3.5;29.5 Prototype Microrobot and Experiments;403
9.3.5.1;29.5.1 Prototype of the Lobster-Like Microrobot;403
9.3.5.2;29.5.2 Walking Experiments;404
9.3.5.3;29.5.3 Rotating Experiments;404
9.3.5.4;29.5.4 Floating Experiments;405
9.3.5.5;29.5.5 Walking, Rotating and Hand Manipulation Experiments;406
9.3.5.6;29.5.6 Obstacle-Avoidance Experiments;406
9.3.6;29.6 Discussion;408
9.3.7;29.7 Conclusion;409
9.3.8;References;410
9.4;Chapter 30: Medical Applications;413
9.4.1;30.1 Medical Applications of Soft Actuators;413
9.4.2;30.2 Polymer Film/Resin Actuators;414
9.4.3;30.3 Elastomer Actuators;418
9.4.4;30.4 Gel Actuators;419
9.4.5;30.5 Biocompatibility;420
9.4.6;30.6 Conclusion;421
9.4.7;References;421
9.5;Chapter 31: Micro Pump Driven by a Pair of Conducting Polymer Soft Actuators;424
9.5.1;31.1 Introduction;424
9.5.2;31.2 Experimental;425
9.5.2.1;31.2.1 Preparation for Conducting Polymer Soft Actuator;425
9.5.3;31.3 Results and Discussions;427
9.5.3.1;31.3.1 Opening and Closing Movement of the Soft Actuator;427
9.5.3.2;31.3.2 Micro Pump Driven by Two Conducting Polymer Soft Actuators;427
9.5.3.3;31.3.3 Unidirectional Fluid Transport of the Micro Pump;428
9.5.3.4;31.3.4 Transport Mechanism of the Micro Pump;430
9.5.3.5;31.3.5 Pressure and Flow Rate Characteristics of the Micro Pump;432
9.5.3.6;31.3.6 Energy Consumption Rate of the Micro Pump;433
9.5.4;31.4 Conclusion;434
9.5.5;References;434
9.6;Chapter 32: Elastomer Transducers;436
9.6.1;32.1 Introduction;436
9.6.2;32.2 Background on DE Transducers;437
9.6.3;32.3 DE Actuators and DE Sensors;437
9.6.3.1;32.3.1 Application of Robots (Include Care and Rehabilitation Purpose) and Sensors;438
9.6.3.2;32.3.2 Application to Audio Equipment;439
9.6.3.3;32.3.3 Other Applications;441
9.6.4;32.4 Application of DE Generation Devices;442
9.6.4.1;32.4.1 DE Wave Generation;443
9.6.4.2;32.4.2 DE Water Mill Generators;445
9.6.4.3;32.4.3 Portable DE Generators;446
9.6.4.4;32.4.4 Wearable Generators;446
9.6.4.5;32.4.5 Production of Hydrogen;447
9.6.5;32.5 Future of DE;448
9.6.6;References;448
10;Part VIII: Next-Generation Bio-Actuators;450
10.1;Chapter 33: Tissue Engineering Approach to Making Soft Actuators;451
10.1.1;33.1 Tissue Engineering;451
10.1.2;33.2 Actuator Made of Muscle Cells;453
10.1.3;33.3 Our Tissue-Engineered Bio-Actuator;454
10.1.4;33.4 Contractile Force Measurement of Bio-Actuator and Its Drive of Micro-Object;456
10.1.5;33.5 Further Study of Bio-Actuator;458
10.1.6;References;460
10.2;Chapter 34: ATP-Driven Bio-machine;462
10.2.1;34.1 Biomolecular Motors;462
10.2.1.1;34.1.1 Active Self-Organization of Biomolecular Motors;463
10.2.1.2;34.1.2 Controlling the Direction of Rotational Motion of the Ring-Shaped Microtubule Assemblies;465
10.2.2;34.2 Prolonged In Vitro Lifetime of Biomolecular Motor in a Reactive Oxygen Species Free Inert Atmosphere;467
10.2.2.1;34.2.1 Growth of Ring-Shaped Microtubule Assemblies Through Stepwise Active Self-Organization in an Inert Atmosphere;468
10.2.3;34.3 Spatiotemporal Control of Active Self-Organization of Biomolecular Motors;469
10.2.3.1;34.3.1 Formation of Well-Oriented Microtubules with Preferential Polarity Under a Temperature Gradient;469
10.2.3.2;34.3.2 Formation of Ring-Shaped Assembly of Microtubules with a Narrow Size Distribution at an Air-Buffer Interface;470
10.2.4;34.4 Conclusion;472
10.2.5;References;472
10.3;Chapter 35: Employing Cytoskeletal Treadmilling in Bio-Actuator;475
10.3.1;35.1 Introduction;475
10.3.2;35.2 What Is Treadmilling?;477
10.3.3;35.3 Studies of Treadmilling Systems;479
10.3.4;35.4 Supra-Macromolecular Hierarchical Cytoskeletal Protein Hydrogels;480
10.3.5;35.5 Conclusions;482
10.3.6;References;482
11;Index;484