Allan / Brown Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-0-08-095969-6
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 1102 Seiten, Web PDF

Reihe: Concise Encyclopedias of Language and Linguistics

Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics is a comprehensive new reference work aiming to systematically describe all aspects of the study of meaning in language. It synthesizes in one volume the latest scholarly positions on the construction, interpretation, clarification, obscurity, illustration, amplification, simplification, negotiation, contradiction, contraction and paraphrasing of meaning, and the various concepts, analyses, methodologies and technologies that underpin their study. It examines not only semantics but the impact of semantic study on related fields such as morphology, syntax, and typologically oriented studies such as 'grammatical semantics', where semantics has made a considerable contribution to our understanding of verbal categories like tense or aspect, nominal categories like case or possession, clausal categories like causatives, comparatives, or conditionals, and discourse phenomena like reference and anaphora. COSE also examines lexical semantics and its relation to syntax, pragmatics, and cognitive linguistics; and the study of how 'logical semantics' develops and thrives, often in interaction with computational linguistics. As a derivative volume from Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Second Edition, it comprises contributions from 150 of the foremost scholars of semantics in their various specializations and draws on 20+ years of development in the parent work in a compact and affordable format. Principally intended for tertiary level inquiry and research, this will be invaluable as a reference work for undergraduate and postgraduate students as well as academics inquiring into the study of meaning and meaning relations within languages. As semantics is a centrally important and inherently cross-cutting area within linguistics it will therefore be relevant not just for semantics specialists, but for most linguistic audiences. - The first encyclopedia ever published in this fascinating and diverse field - Combines the talents of the world's leading semantics specialists - The latest trends in the field authoritatively reviewed and interpreted in context of related disciplines - Drawn from the richest, most authoritative, comprehensive and internationally acclaimed reference resource in the linguistics area - Compact and affordable single volume reference format

Autoren/Hrsg.

Allan, Keith

Brown, Keith

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;The Editor;6
5;Alphabetical List of Articles;8
6;Introduction;12
7;Contributors;18
8;A;24
8.1;Accessibility Theory;24
8.1.1;Bibliography;26
8.2;Acquisition of Meaning by Children;27
8.2.1;Conventionality and Contrast;28
8.2.2;In Conversation;28
8.2.3;Making Inferences;29
8.2.4;Pragmatics and Meaning;30
8.2.5;Another Approach;31
8.2.6;Sources of Meanings;32
8.2.7;Summary;32
8.2.8;Bibliography;33
8.3;Anaphora Resolution: Centering Theory;34
8.3.1;Anaphora Resolution with Centers of Attention;34
8.3.2;Centering Theory: Modeling Local Coherence with Centers of Attention;35
8.3.3;Centering Theory and Anaphora Resolution;38
8.3.4;Unspecified Aspects of Centering;38
8.3.5;Applications of Centering Theory as a Model of Local Coherence;40
8.3.6;Bibliography;40
8.4;Anaphora, Cataphora, Exophora, Logophoricity;41
8.4.1;Defining Anaphora, Cataphora, and Exophora;41
8.4.1.1;NP-Anaphora;42
8.4.1.2;The Syntactic Approach;42
8.4.1.3;The Semantic Approach;43
8.4.1.4;The Pragmatic Approach;44
8.4.2;VP-Anaphora;44
8.4.2.1;A Typology of VP-Anaphora;44
8.4.2.2;VP-Ellipsis: Properties, Issues, and Analyses;45
8.4.2.2.1;Properties;45
8.4.2.2.2;Issues;45
8.4.2.2.3;Analyses;45
8.4.3;Logophoricity;46
8.4.3.1;Defining Logophoricity;46
8.4.3.2;Cross-Linguistic Marking of Logophoricity;46
8.4.3.3;A Typology of Languages with Respect to Logophoricity;46
8.4.3.4;Some Implicational Universals with Respect to Logophoricity;46
8.4.4;Bibliography;48
8.5;Antonymy and Incompatibility;48
8.5.1;Incompatibility and Contrast;48
8.5.2;Antonymy and Opposition;49
8.5.2.1;Gradable Contrariety (Classical Antonymy, Polar Opposition);49
8.5.2.2;Complementarity (Contradiction);49
8.5.2.3;Directional Antonyms;49
8.5.2.4;Other Types of Opposition;49
8.5.3;Research Issues;50
8.5.3.1;Contrast and Lexical Development;50
8.5.3.2;A Lexical Relation?;50
8.5.3.3;Discourse Functions and Constructions;50
8.5.3.4;Defining Antonymy;51
8.5.4;Bibliography;51
8.6;Aristotle and Linguistics;51
8.6.1;Bibliography;54
8.7;Aspect and Aktionsart;54
8.7.1;Phases and Boundaries;54
8.7.2;Aspect Theories and Their Historical Development;55
8.7.3;Bibliography;57
8.8;Assertion;57
8.8.1;Bibliography;60
9;B;62
9.1;Boole and Algebraic Semantics;62
9.1.1;Bibliography;65
10;C;66
10.1;Categorial Grammar, Semantics in;66
10.1.1;Introduction;66
10.1.2;Montague Semantics;67
10.1.3;Lexical Semantics;68
10.1.4;Quantifiers and Scope;68
10.1.5;Anaphora;71
10.1.5.1;Reflexives;71
10.1.5.2;Pronouns;72
10.1.6;Computational Semantics for Categorial Grammars;73
10.1.7;Conclusion;73
10.1.8;Bibliography;73
10.2;Categorizing Percepts: Vantage Theory;74
10.2.1;Bibliography;75
10.2.2;Relevant Website;75
10.3;Category-Specific Knowledge;75
10.3.1;Principles of Organization;75
10.3.1.1;Modality-Specific Hypotheses;76
10.3.1.2;Domain-Specific Hypotheses;76
10.3.1.3;Feature-Based Hypotheses;76
10.3.2;Clues from Cognitive Neuropsychology;77
10.3.2.1;Explaining Category-Specific Semantic Deficits;77
10.3.3;Clues from Functional Neuroimaging;79
10.3.4;Conclusion;79
10.3.5;See also;80
10.3.6;Bibliography;80
10.4;Causatives;82
10.4.1;Defining Causative Constructions;82
10.4.2;Types of Causative Constructions;82
10.4.3;The Semantics of Causatives: Two Major Types of Causation;82
10.4.4;Causative Continuum and Causation Types;84
10.4.5;Bibliography;84
10.5;Character versus Content;85
10.5.1;Content/Character Distinction and Semantics;85
10.5.2;Content/Character Distinction and Philosophy;86
10.5.3;Bibliography;87
10.6;Classifiers and Noun Classes;88
10.6.1;Noun Classes;88
10.6.2;Noun Classifiers;90
10.6.3;Numeral Classifiers;91
10.6.4;Classifiers in Possessive Constructions;92
10.6.5;Verbal Classifiers;92
10.6.6;Locative Classifiers;93
10.6.7;Deictic Classifiers;93
10.6.8;Bibliography;95
10.7;Cognitive Semantics;96
10.7.1;Cognitive Linguistics and Cognitive Semantics;96
10.7.2;Meaning Is Encyclopedic in Scope;97
10.7.3;Categorization;99
10.7.4;The Usage-Basis of Cognitive Semantics;101
10.7.5;Construal;102
10.7.5.1;Figure-Ground Organization;102
10.7.5.2;Force Dynamics;103
10.7.5.3;Objective vs. Subjective Construal;104
10.7.5.4;Linguistic Conventions;104
10.7.6;Embodiment;105
10.7.7;Compositionality;105
10.7.8;The Conceptual Basis of Syntactic Categories;106
10.7.9;Relativism vs. Nativism;108
10.7.10;Conclusion;108
10.7.11;Bibliography;109
10.8;Coherence: Psycholinguistic Approach;109
10.8.1;Coherence in Text and in the Mind;109
10.8.1.1;Cohesion Markers;110
10.8.2;The Psychological Concept of a Connected, Coherent, Discourse Representation;111
10.8.2.1;Connecting Individuals: Anaphoric Reference;111
10.8.2.2;Causal Connectivity;111
10.8.3;Studies of Inferential Activity;112
10.8.3.1;Necessity and Elaboration;112
10.8.3.1.1;Situation-Specific Information: Scenario-Theory;112
10.8.3.1.1.1;Keeping Track of Things: Situation Models;113
10.8.3.1.1.2;Multiple Viewpoints;114
10.8.4;Coherence and Selective Processing;114
10.8.4.1;Selective Processing;114
10.8.5;Bibliography;115
10.9;Cohesion and Coherence;115
10.9.1;Bibliography;118
10.10;Collocations;120
10.10.1;Historical Use of the Term Collocation;120
10.10.2;Collocation in Modern Linguistics;120
10.10.3;Collocation and Lexicography;120
10.10.4;Finding Collocations in a Corpus (Annexes 1-3);121
10.10.5;Collocation in Computational Linguistics, Pedagogy, and Translation;122
10.10.6;Conclusions and the Future;122
10.10.7;Bibliography;122
10.11;Color Terms;123
10.11.1;Color Perception;123
10.11.2;Color Vocabulary;123
10.11.3;Color Term Universals;124
10.11.4;Explaining Basic Color Terms;127
10.11.5;Bibliography;128
10.11.6;Relevant Website;128
10.12;Comparatives;129
10.12.1;Introduction;129
10.12.2;Gradability;129
10.12.3;Comparison;130
10.12.4;Comparison Cross-Linguistically;131
10.12.5;Bibliography;131
10.13;Comparative Constructions;132
10.13.1;Definition of the Domain;132
10.13.2;The Comparison of Inequality: Parameters;132
10.13.3;Predicate Marking in Comparative Constructions;134
10.13.4;Explanation of the Typology of Comparative Constructions;135
10.13.5;Bibliography;136
10.14;Componential Analysis;136
10.14.1;Componential Analysis;136
10.14.2;The European Tradition of Componential Analysis;136
10.14.3;The American Tradition of Componential Analysis;137
10.14.4;The Contemporary Situation;138
10.14.5;Bibliography;139
10.15;Compositionality;140
10.15.1;Bibliography;142
10.16;Concepts;142
10.16.1;The Classical Theory;142
10.16.2;Probabilistic Theories;143
10.16.3;The Theory-Theory;144
10.16.4;Conceptual Atomism;144
10.16.5;Bibliography;145
10.17;Concessive Clauses;145
10.17.1;Meaning and Syntactic Properties;146
10.17.2;Concessive Connectives;146
10.17.3;Relationship to Other Types of Adverbial Clauses;147
10.17.4;Types of Concessive Clauses;148
10.17.5;Bibliography;149
10.18;Conditionals;150
10.18.1;Form and Meaning;150
10.18.2;Truth-Conditional Semantics;150
10.18.2.1;Material Conditional;150
10.18.2.2;(Variably) Strict Implication;151
10.18.2.3;Relative Likelihood;151
10.18.2.4;Probability;152
10.18.3;Summary;152
10.18.4;Bibliography;152
10.19;Connectives in Text;153
10.19.1;The Semantics of Connectives;154
10.19.2;Connectives in Language Development and Discourse Processing;157
10.19.3;Conclusion;159
10.19.4;Bibliography;160
10.20;Connotation;161
10.20.1;Bibliography;164
10.21;Constants and Variables;164
10.21.1;Bibliography;165
10.22;Context;165
10.22.1;Introduction;165
10.22.2;Emergence;168
10.22.2.1;Context as a Sheer Situation;168
10.22.2.2;Relevant Settings;169
10.22.2.3;Semiotic Field, Symbolic and Demonstrative;169
10.22.3;Embedding;170
10.22.3.1;Social Field;172
10.22.3.2;Contextualization Processes;175
10.22.4;Conclusion;176
10.22.5;Bibliography;177
10.23;Context and Common Ground;178
10.23.1;History;178
10.23.2;Bases for Common Ground;179
10.23.2.1;Communal Common Ground;179
10.23.2.2;Personal Common Ground;179
10.23.3;Language and Communal Common Ground;180
10.23.4;Discourse and Personal Common Ground;180
10.23.5;Bibilography;181
10.24;Context Principle;181
10.24.1;Sentence Primacy: Three Interpretations of the Context Principle;182
10.24.2;Motivating the Context Principle;183
10.24.3;A Possible Objection to the Context Principle;185
10.24.4;Bibliography;187
10.25;Conventions in Language;188
10.25.1;Convention and Analyticity;188
10.25.2;Grice;188
10.25.3;Lewis;188
10.25.4;Lewis’s General Notion of Convention;189
10.25.5;Conventions of Language;189
10.25.6;A Basic Difficulty for Grice-Lewis;189
10.25.7;Chomskyan Accounts of Linguistic Convention;190
10.25.8;Convention versus Inference;190
10.25.9;Bibliography;191
10.26;Cooperative Principle;191
10.26.1;The Principle Itself;191
10.26.2;What Counts as Cooperation?;191
10.26.3;The Cooperative Principle and the Maxims of Cooperative Discourse;192
10.26.4;Failures to Fulfill Maxims and Implicature;192
10.26.5;Major Critiques of the Cooperative Principle;193
10.26.5.1;Problems with the Term 'Cooperation ';193
10.26.5.2;Problems with the Maxims: The Haphazardness of Communication and the Specificity of Maxims;194
10.26.6;Scholarship Influenced by the Cooperative Principle;195
10.26.6.1;Grammar;195
10.26.6.2;Neo-Gricean Pragmatics;195
10.26.6.3;Politeness Theory;196
10.26.6.4;Question Processing;196
10.26.6.5;Gender Studies;196
10.26.6.6;Teacher Research and Pedagogy;196
10.26.7;Conclusion;197
10.26.8;Bibliography;197
10.27;Coreference: Identity and Similarity;198
10.27.1;Defining Coreference;198
10.27.2;Identity;198
10.27.3;Similarity;198
10.27.3.1;Bound-Variable Anaphora;198
10.27.3.2;E-Type Anaphora;199
10.27.3.3;Anaphora of Laziness;199
10.27.3.4;Bridging Cross-reference Anaphora;200
10.27.4;Bibliography;200
10.28;Counterfactuals;201
10.28.1;Metalinguistic Approaches;201
10.28.2;Possible Worlds Approach;202
10.28.3;Some Issues;203
10.28.4;Bibliography;203
11;D;204
11.1;Default Semantics;204
11.1.1;Bibliography;207
11.2;Definite and Indefinite;207
11.2.1;What Does 'Definite ' Mean?;207
11.2.1.1;Uniqueness?;207
11.2.1.2;Familiarity?;208
11.2.1.3;Some Puzzling Cases;209
11.2.2;Grammatical Phenomena;210
11.2.2.1;Existential Sentences;210
11.2.2.2;The Have Construction;210
11.2.3;Other Kinds of Definite and Indefinite NPs;210
11.2.3.1;Other Kinds of Definite NPs;210
11.2.3.2;Bare NPs;211
11.2.3.3;Other Types of Indefinite NPs;211
11.2.4;Other Kinds of Categorizations;212
11.2.4.1;Old and New;212
11.2.4.2;The Givenness Hierarchy;212
11.2.4.3;The Accessibility Hierarchy;212
11.2.5;Definite and Indefinite in Other Languages;213
11.2.6;Bibliography;213
11.3;Definite and Indefinite Articles;214
11.3.1;Definite Articles;215
11.3.2;Indefinite Articles;216
11.3.3;Geographic Distribution;216
11.3.4;Concluding Remarks;216
11.3.5;Bibliography;217
11.4;Definite and Indefinite Descriptions;217
11.4.1;Russell’s Theories of Description;218
11.4.1.1;Russell’s Early Theory of Denoting;218
11.4.1.2;Russell’s Mature Theory;218
11.4.1.3;Definite Descriptions in Principia mathematica;218
11.4.1.4;Descriptions and Scope;219
11.4.2;Responses to Russell’s Theory of Definite Descriptions;219
11.4.2.1;Strawson’s Critique of Russell;219
11.4.2.2;The Ambiguity Thesis;220
11.4.3;Responses to Russell’s Theory of Indefinite Descriptions;221
11.4.3.1;Referential Uses of Indefinite Descriptions;221
11.4.3.2;An Alternative Nonreferential Account;221
11.4.4;Bibliography;222
11.5;Definition in Lexicology;223
11.5.1;Bibliography;226
11.6;Definitions;227
11.6.1;Uses;227
11.6.2;Varieties;227
11.6.2.1;Comparatively Context-Free Forms of Definition;227
11.6.2.2;Comparatively Context-Dependent Definitions;228
11.6.3;Uses Again;229
11.6.4;Bibliography;229
11.7;Demonstratives;230
11.7.1;The Semantic Properties of Demonstratives;230
11.7.2;The Syntactic Properties of Demonstratives;231
11.7.3;The Pragmatic Functions of Demonstratives;232
11.7.4;The Grammaticalization of Demonstratives;232
11.7.4.1;Grammatical Markers Derived from Pronominal Demonstratives;232
11.7.4.2;Grammatical Markers Derived from Adnominal Demonstratives;233
11.7.4.3;Grammatical Markers Derived from Adverbial Demonstratives;233
11.7.4.4;Grammatical Markers Derived from Demonstratives in Nonverbal Clauses;233
11.7.5;The Diachronic Origin of Demonstratives and Their Status in Language;234
11.7.6;Bibliography;234
11.8;Dictionaries;235
11.8.1;Bibliography;236
11.9;Dictionaries and Encyclopedias: Relationship;236
11.9.1;Bibliography;240
11.10;Diminutives and Augmentatives;241
11.10.1;Bibliography;242
11.11;Direct Reference;243
11.11.1;What Is Direct Reference?;243
11.11.2;Some Closely Related Concepts;244
11.11.3;Problems with Direct Reference;245
11.11.4;Bibliography;245
11.12;Disambiguation;246
11.12.1;Introduction;246
11.12.2;Making Sense of Words;247
11.12.2.1;Polysemy;248
11.12.2.2;Context and Disambiguation;249
11.12.2.3;Measures of Difficulty;249
11.12.3;Applications and the Sense Inventory;251
11.12.3.1;Four Sources of Sense Inventories;252
11.12.3.2;Applications;253
11.12.3.2.1;Machine Translation;253
11.12.3.2.2;Lexicography and Information Extraction;253
11.12.3.2.3;Information Retrieval;253
11.12.4;Historical Context;254
11.12.5;Methods for Word Sense Disambiguation;255
11.12.5.1;Computational Formulation of the Problem;255
11.12.5.2;Dictionary-Based Methods;256
11.12.5.3;Selectional Restriction-Based Methods;257
11.12.5.4;Connectionist Methods;257
11.12.5.5;Domain-Based Methods;257
11.12.5.6;Supervised Corpus-Based Methods;257
11.12.5.7;Unsupervised Corpus-Based Approaches;258
11.12.6;Evaluation;259
11.12.6.1;Accuracy against a Reference Corpus;260
11.12.6.2;Senseval;261
11.12.6.3;Other Ways to Evaluate;261
11.12.7;Current Research Efforts;261
11.12.8;Bibliography;262
11.13;Discourse Anaphora;263
11.13.1;Introduction;263
11.13.2;Some Useful Concepts and Distinctions in the Study of Indexical Reference: ‘Anaphora,’ ‘Deixis,’ and ‘Textual/Discourse Deixis’;263
11.13.3;Three Essential Ingredients of the Operation of Discourse Anaphora: ‘Antecedent-Trigger,’ ‘Antecedent,’ and ‘Anaphor’;264
11.13.3.1;The Antecedent-Trigger;264
11.13.3.2;The Antecedent;265
11.13.3.3;The Anaphor;265
11.13.4;The Text - as Well as Discourse - Sensitivity of Discourse Anaphora;265
11.13.5;Conclusion;269
11.13.6;Bibliography;269
11.14;Discourse Domain;270
11.14.1;Bibliography;270
11.15;Discourse Parsing, Automatic;271
11.15.1;Introduction;271
11.15.2;Discourse Structure Representations;271
11.15.3;Observables Used for Inferring Discourse Relations;272
11.15.4;Algorithms;273
11.15.4.1;Algorithms for Identifying Discourse Relations;273
11.15.4.2;Algorithms for Discourse Structure Derivation (Discourse Parsing);273
11.15.4.3;Performance;274
11.15.5;Public Resources;274
11.15.6;Bibliography;274
11.15.7;Relevant Websites;275
11.16;Discourse Representation Theory;275
11.16.1;The Problem of Unbound Anaphora;275
11.16.2;Basic Ideas;276
11.16.3;Discourse Representation Structures (DRSs);277
11.16.4;Extensions: Tense and Plurals;278
11.16.5;Incorporating Generalized Quantifiers;279
11.16.6;Discourse Structures and Partial Models;280
11.16.7;Reasoning with DRSs;281
11.16.7.1;Definition 1 (DRT);281
11.16.7.2;Definition 2 (Semantics of DRT);281
11.16.7.3;Definition 3 (DRT Consequence);281
11.16.7.4;Theorem 4;282
11.16.7.4.1;Proof;282
11.16.7.5;Theorem 5;282
11.16.8;The Treatment of Ambiguities;283
11.16.9;Bibliography;283
11.17;Discourse Semantics;284
11.17.1;Introduction;284
11.17.2;Incrementation;285
11.17.3;Subdomain Structures;290
11.17.4;Bibliography;291
11.18;Donkey Sentences;292
11.18.1;Bibliography;294
11.19;Dthat;294
11.19.1;Bibliography;295
11.20;Dynamic Semantics;295
11.20.1;Information and Information Change;295
11.20.2;Discourse Representation Theory and File Change Semantics;296
11.20.3;Dynamic Predicate Logic;297
11.20.4;Update Semantics;298
11.20.5;Presuppositions;299
11.20.6;Further Reading;299
11.20.7;Bibliography;299
12;E;302
12.1;Event-Based Semantics;302
12.1.1;Bibliography;305
12.2;Evidentiality;305
12.2.1;Bibliography;310
12.3;Evolution of Semantics;311
12.3.1;Cognitive Preadaptations for Semantic Knowledge;311
12.3.1.1;The Importance of Motor Evolution;312
12.3.1.2;The Importance of Intention-Reading Skills;312
12.3.1.3;The Importance of Personality Types;313
12.3.2;The Nature and Evolution of Semantic Knowledge;314
12.3.2.1;Concept Formation;314
12.3.2.2;The Nature of Lexical Concepts: The Natural Partitions Hypothesis;315
12.3.2.3;Lexical Concepts and Concept-Combination;316
12.3.2.4;Polysemy;317
12.3.2.5;Abstract Concepts;317
12.3.2.6;Cultural Evolution;318
12.3.3;Bibliography;318
12.4;Existence;319
12.4.1;What Existence Is;319
12.4.2;The Hume-Kant View;319
12.4.3;The Frege-Russell View;320
12.4.4;The Meinong-Russell View;321
12.4.5;Bibliography;322
12.5;Expression Meaning vs Utterance/Speaker Meaning;322
12.5.1;Bibliography;324
12.6;Extensionality and Intensionality;324
12.6.1;Semantical Aspects of Extensionality and Intensionality;325
12.6.2;Extensionality and Intensionality in Formal Settings;326
12.6.3;Bibliography;327
13;F;328
13.1;Face;328
13.1.1;Background;328
13.1.2; 'Face ' According to Goffman;328
13.1.3;Brown and Levinson’s 'Face ' and Its Critics;329
13.1.4;Future of Face Research;330
13.1.5;Bibliography;330
13.2;Factivity;330
13.2.1;Bibliography;331
13.3;False Friends;331
13.3.1;Bibliography;333
13.3.2;Relevant Websites;333
13.4;Field Work Methods in Semantics;334
13.4.1;Bibliography;336
13.5;Folk Etymology;337
13.5.1;Bibliography;337
13.6;Formal Semantics;337
13.6.1;Introduction;337
13.6.1.1;Semantics vs. Lexicography;338
13.6.1.2;The Notion of Synonymy and Its Problems;339
13.6.2;Truth and Semantic Competence;340
13.6.3;Semantic Modeling;344
13.6.4;The Semantics/Pragmatics Interface;348
13.6.5;Conclusions;352
13.6.6;Bibliography;353
13.7;Frame Semantics;353
13.7.1;Introduction;353
13.7.1.1;Oppositions;353
13.7.1.2;Word Choice;354
13.7.1.3;Beyond Literal Meaning;354
13.7.2;Frames and Framing;354
13.7.2.1;Cognitive Frames;354
13.7.2.1.1;Minsky Frames;355
13.7.2.1.2;Goffman Frames;355
13.7.2.2;The Word 'Frame ' in Linguistics;355
13.7.2.2.1;Case Frames;355
13.7.2.3;Merging the Two Research Strands;356
13.7.3;Frames and the Lexicon;356
13.7.3.1;An Example: The Revenge Frame;357
13.7.3.2;Polysemy;357
13.7.3.3;The FrameNet Database;358
13.7.3.3.1;The Basic Data;358
13.7.3.3.2;The Frame-to-Frame Relations;359
13.7.3.4;Applications and Extensions;360
13.7.4;Bibliography;360
13.8;Future Tense and Future Time Reference;361
13.8.1;Bibliography;362
14;G;364
14.1;Game-Theoretical Semantics;364
14.1.1;Bibliography;366
14.2;Gender;367
14.2.1;What Is Gender and Why Do Linguists Study It?;367
14.2.2;Theorizing Gender: From Difference to Diversity;367
14.2.3;Language and Gender in the Variationist Paradigm;368
14.2.4;Gendered Discourse Styles;371
14.2.5;Conclusion;372
14.2.6;Bibliography;373
14.3;General Semantics;373
14.3.1;Bibliography;374
14.3.2;Relevant Website;374
14.4;Generating Referring Expressions;375
14.4.1;Introduction: An Informal Characterization of the Problem;375
14.4.2;A More Formal Characterization of the Problem;375
14.4.3;Approaches to the Problem;377
14.4.3.1;Early Work;377
14.4.3.2;Producing Minimal Distinguishing Descriptions;377
14.4.3.3;More Efficient Algorithms;378
14.4.3.4;Referring to Entities Using Relations;378
14.4.3.5;Logical Extensions: Sets, Booleans, and Quantifiers;379
14.4.4;Broader Issues and Outstanding Problems;379
14.4.4.1;Other Forms of Anaphoric Reference;379
14.4.4.2;Initial Reference;379
14.4.4.3;The Pragmatics of Reference;379
14.4.5;Bibliography;380
14.5;Generative Lexicon;380
14.5.1;Introduction;380
14.5.2;Traditional Lexical Representations;381
14.5.3;The Nature of Polysemy;382
14.5.4;Levels of Lexical Meaning;383
14.5.4.1;Qualia Structure;384
14.5.5;Coercion and Compositionality;385
14.5.6;Complex Types in Language;386
14.5.7;Recent Developments in Generative Lexicon;386
14.5.8;Bibliography;387
14.6;Generative Semantics;390
14.6.1;Foreword (by Randy Harris);390
14.6.2;Generative Semantics (by James D McCawley);390
14.6.3;GS Positions on Controversial Issues;390
14.6.4;GS Policies on the Conduct of Research;391
14.6.5;Prominent and Influential Analyses Proposed within the GS Approach;392
14.6.6;The History of GS;393
14.6.7;Bibliography;394
14.7;Generic Reference;395
14.7.1;Forms of Generic Reference;395
14.7.2;Theory of Generic Reference;397
14.7.3;Bibliography;398
14.8;Generics, Habituals and Iteratives;398
14.8.1;Bibliography;401
14.9;Grammatical Meaning;401
14.9.1;Bibliography;403
15;H;404
15.1;Honorifics;404
15.1.1;Referent Honorifics;404
15.1.1.1;Titles;404
15.1.1.2;Pronouns;404
15.1.1.3;Nouns;405
15.1.1.4;Subject Honorifics;405
15.1.1.5;Humbling Forms;406
15.1.2;Addressee Honorifics;406
15.1.3;Avoidance Languages;407
15.1.4;Beautification;407
15.1.5;Form of Honorifics;408
15.1.6;Distribution and Development of Honorifics;409
15.1.7;Use of Honorifics;409
15.1.7.1;Power and Solidarity;409
15.1.7.2;Power-Based Honorific Pattern;410
15.1.7.3;Solidarity-Based Honorific Pattern;410
15.1.7.4;Demeanor;411
15.1.7.5;Formality;411
15.1.7.6;Relativity of Social Distance;411
15.1.8;Conclusion;412
15.1.9;Bibliography;413
15.2;Human Reasoning and Language Interpretation;413
15.2.1;Bibliography;416
15.3;Hyponymy and Hyperonymy;416
15.3.1;Hyponymy as a Paradigmatic Relation;416
15.3.2;Types and Properties of Hyponyms;417
15.3.3;Hyponymy and Lexical Organization;417
15.3.4;Bibliography;418
16;I;420
16.1;Ideational Theories of Meaning;420
16.1.1;Bibliography;422
16.2;Ideophones;423
16.2.1;Introduction;423
16.2.2;Formal Approach;423
16.2.3;Discourse Pragmatic Approach;424
16.2.4;Bibliography;426
16.3;Idioms;427
16.3.1;Semantic Opacity;427
16.3.2;Grammatical and Compositional Fixity;427
16.3.3;Syntactic Function;428
16.3.3.1;Verbs;428
16.3.3.2;Nouns;429
16.3.3.3;Adjectives;429
16.3.3.4;Adverbs;429
16.3.3.5;Others;429
16.3.4;Clicheacutes;429
16.3.5;Bibliography;430
16.4;Implicature;430
16.4.1;The Basic Notions;430
16.4.2;Beyond Grice;432
16.4.2.1;Presumptive Meanings: Levinson’s Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature;432
16.4.2.2;Division of Pragmatic Labor: Horn’s Q- and R-Principles;436
16.4.2.3;Relevance Theory: Carston’s Underdeterminacy Thesis;437
16.4.3;Quality Reconsidered;439
16.4.4;Implicature and the Grammar/Pragmatics Interface;440
16.4.5;Conclusions;441
16.4.6;Bibliography;442
16.5;Indefinite Pronouns;444
16.5.1;General;444
16.5.2;The Some-Any Distinction;444
16.5.3;Functions of Indefinite Pronouns;445
16.5.4;Diachronic Developments;445
16.5.5;Inherently Negative Pronouns;446
16.5.6;Bibliography;446
16.6;Indeterminacy;447
16.6.1;The Argument from Below;447
16.6.2;Reactions to the Argument from Below;448
16.6.3;The Argument from Above;448
16.6.4;Reactions to the Argument from Above;448
16.6.5;Bibliography;449
16.7;Indexicality;449
16.7.1;Bibliography;452
16.8;Inference: Abduction, Induction, Deduction;452
16.8.1;Bibliography;455
16.9;Ingressives;455
16.10;Intensifying Reflexives;456
16.10.1;Terminology;456
16.10.2;Parameters of Variation;457
16.10.2.1;Agreement vs. Invariance;457
16.10.2.1.1;German;457
16.10.2.1.2;Finnish;457
16.10.2.2;Relation to Reflexive Anaphors;457
16.10.2.2.1;French;458
16.10.2.3;Selectional Restrictions;458
16.10.2.3.1;Japanese;458
16.10.3;Bibliography;458
16.11;Intention and Semantics;459
16.11.1;Bibliography;461
16.12;Interpreted Logical Forms;461
16.12.1;Propositional Attitude Reports;462
16.12.2;What Are ILFs?;462
16.12.3;Puzzles and Problems;463
16.12.3.1;The Simple Name Puzzle;463
16.12.3.2;The Simple Demonstrative Puzzle;463
16.12.3.3;The Hard Demonstrative Puzzle;463
16.12.3.4;The Hard Name Puzzle;464
16.12.4;Prospects;464
16.12.5;Bibliography;465
16.13;Interrogatives;466
16.13.1;Metasemantics;466
16.13.2;Semantics;468
16.13.3;Bibliography;469
16.14;Irony;469
16.14.1;Bibliography;471
17;J;472
17.1;Jargon;472
17.1.1;Bibliography;474
18;L;476
18.1;Lexical Acquisition;476
18.1.1;Introduction;476
18.1.2;Resources;477
18.1.2.1;Machine-Readable Dictionaries;477
18.1.2.2;Machine-Readable Thesauruses;477
18.1.2.3;Corpora;477
18.1.2.4;Multilingual Resources;477
18.1.3;Automatic Techniques;477
18.1.4;The Entries and Acquired Information;479
18.1.4.1;Pronunciation;479
18.1.4.2;Part-of-Speech;479
18.1.4.3;Morphology;479
18.1.4.4;Syntax, Argument Structure, and Preferences;479
18.1.4.5;Semantics;480
18.1.4.6;Pragmatics;481
18.1.4.7;Multiwords;481
18.1.5;Updating the Lexicon;481
18.1.6;Evaluation;482
18.1.7;Future Directions;482
18.1.8;Bibliography;483
18.1.9;Relevant Website;483
18.2;Lexical Conceptual Structure;484
18.2.1;Introduction;484
18.2.2;Overview of Conceptual Semantics;485
18.2.2.1;Autonomy of Semantics;485
18.2.2.2;Lexical Conceptual Structure;486
18.2.2.2.1;Ontological Categories;487
18.2.2.2.2;Conceptual Formation Rules;487
18.2.2.3;X-bar Semantics;488
18.2.3;General Constraints on Semantic Theories;489
18.2.4;Comparison with Other Works;490
18.2.5;Suggested Readings;491
18.2.6;Bibliography;491
18.3;Lexical Conditions;492
18.3.1;Bibliography;493
18.4;Lexical Fields;493
18.4.1;Introduction;493
18.4.2;Background;494
18.4.3;The Concept of Lexical Field;494
18.4.4;Relevance of Lexical Fields;496
18.4.5;Bibliography;496
18.5;Lexical Meaning, Cognitive Dependency of;496
18.5.1;Bibliography;498
18.6;Lexical Semantics;499
18.6.1;Word Knowledge;499
18.6.2;Historical Overview;499
18.6.3;Ambiguity and Polysemy;500
18.6.4;Lexical Relations;501
18.6.5;The Semantics of a Lexical Entry;501
18.6.5.1;Lexical Semantic Classifications;502
18.6.5.2;Argument Structure;502
18.6.5.3;Event Structure and Lexical Decomposition;503
18.6.5.4;Qualia Structure;504
18.6.6;Bibliography;505
18.7;Lexicology;507
18.7.1;Introduction: The Scope of Lexicology;507
18.7.2;Polysemy and Homonymy;507
18.7.3;Metaphor and the Differentiation of Meanings;509
18.7.4;Frame Semantics;510
18.7.5;Bibliography;511
18.8;Lexicon/Dictionary: Computational Approaches;512
18.8.1;What Are Computational Lexicons and Dictionaries?;512
18.8.2;History of Computational Lexicology;513
18.8.3;The Study of Computational Lexicons;513
18.8.3.1;Making Lexicons Tractable;513
18.8.3.2;What Can Be Extracted From Machine-Readable Dictionaries?;514
18.8.3.2.1;Lexical Semantics;514
18.8.3.2.2;Research Using Longman’s Dictionary of Contem—porary English;515
18.8.3.2.3;Semantic Networks;516
18.8.4;Using Lexicons;516
18.8.4.1;Language Engineering;516
18.8.4.1.1;Word-Sense Disambiguation;517
18.8.4.1.2;Information Extraction;517
18.8.4.1.3;Question Answering;517
18.8.4.1.4;Text Summarization;518
18.8.4.1.5;Speech Recognition and Speech Synthesis;518
18.8.5;The Semantic Imperative;519
18.8.6;Bibliography;519
18.9;Lexicon: Structure;520
18.9.1;Bibliography;523
18.10;Logic and Language;524
18.10.1;Introduction;524
18.10.2;The Mathematicization of Logic: Leibniz and Boole;524
18.10.3;Logic and Language in Frege;526
18.10.4;Russell: Definite Descriptions and Logical Atomism;528
18.10.5;Wittgenstein on Logic and Language;529
18.10.6;Carnap and the Vienna Circle;530
18.10.7;Quine: the Thesis of Gradualism;531
18.10.8;Bibliography;532
18.11;Logical and Linguistic Notation;533
18.11.1;Propositional Calculus;534
18.11.2;Predicate Calculus;535
18.11.3;Bibliography;535
18.12;Logical Consequence;536
18.12.1;Fundamentals;536
18.12.2;The Formal Study of Logical Consequence;536
18.12.3;General Philosophical Concerns;538
18.12.4;Bibliography;539
18.13;Logical Form;539
18.13.1;Bibliography;542
19;M;544
19.1;Mass Expressions;544
19.1.1;Bibliography;547
19.2;Meaning Postulates;548
19.2.1;Bibliography;548
19.3;Meaning, Sense, and Reference;549
19.3.1;Meanings of Meaning;549
19.3.2;Meaning and Semiotics;550
19.3.2.1;Ferdinand de Saussure and Structuralism;550
19.3.2.2;C. S. Peirce;551
19.3.3;Dictionary vs. Encyclopedia;553
19.3.4;Umwelt - Meaning beyond Words;555
19.3.5;Summary;557
19.3.6;Bibliography;557
19.4;Memes;558
19.4.1;What Is a Meme?;558
19.4.2;How Are Memes like Genes?;558
19.4.3;How Are Memes unlike Genes?;559
19.4.4;The Current State of Memetics;559
19.4.5;Bibliography;559
19.5;Mentalese;559
19.5.1;The Basic Hypothesis;559
19.5.2;What Is Mentalese Like?;560
19.5.2.1;The Thinker’s Public Language, or a Proprietary Inner Code?;560
19.5.2.2;Psycho-Syntax and Psycho-Semantics;561
19.5.3;Further Arguments for LOT;561
19.5.3.1;Theories of Mental Processing Are Committed to LOT;561
19.5.3.2;LOT Explains Some Pervasive Features of Thought;561
19.5.4;Bibliography;562
19.6;Meronymy;562
19.6.1;Definition of Meronymy;562
19.6.2;Types of Meronyms;563
19.6.3;Properties of Meronymy;564
19.6.4;Meronymy in Linguistic Theory;564
19.6.5;Bibliography;564
19.7;Metalanguage versus Object Language;565
19.7.1;Bibliography;565
19.8;Metaphor and Conceptual Blending;566
19.8.1;Conceptual Metaphor Theory;566
19.8.1.1;Higher-Level Mappings;567
19.8.1.2;Primary Metaphor and Experiential Grounding;567
19.8.2;Conceptual Blending Theory;568
19.8.2.1;Mental Space Theory;568
19.8.2.2;Conceptual Blending and Metaphor;569
19.8.3;Metaphor, Conceptual Blending, and Linguistic Theory;571
19.8.4;Bibliography;572
19.9;Metonymy;573
19.9.1;Metonymy: History and Terminology;573
19.9.2;Metonymy: From Cognition to Social Interaction;574
19.9.3;Metaphor and Metonymy;574
19.9.4;Conclusion;576
19.9.5;Bibliography;576
19.10;Modal Logic;577
19.10.1;Bibliography;583
19.11;Monotonicity and Generalized Quantifiers;584
19.11.1;Bibliography;587
19.12;Montague Semantics;587
19.12.1;Historical Background;587
19.12.2;Aims;588
19.12.3;The Compositional Approach;590
19.12.3.1;Interpretation in a Model;591
19.12.3.2;Extension and Intension;592
19.12.3.3;A Small Fragment;593
19.12.3.4;Some PTQ Phenomena;595
19.12.3.5;Developments;596
19.12.3.6;Further Reading;597
19.12.4;Bibliography;597
19.13;Mood and Modality;599
19.13.1;Introduction;599
19.13.2;Definitions and Categories;599
19.13.3;Modal Verbs;600
19.13.3.1;Classifications;601
19.13.4;Diachronic Paths of Development;603
19.13.5;Post-modality;605
19.13.6;Bibliography;605
19.14;Mood, Clause Types, and Illocutionary Force;607
19.14.1;Bibliography;611
19.15;Multivalued Logics;611
19.15.1;Bibliography;614
20;N;616
20.1;Natural Language Understanding, Automatic;616
20.1.1; 'Understanding ' Natural Language;616
20.1.2;Conversational Agents;616
20.1.3;Meanings, Consequences, and Actions;618
20.1.4;Meaning Representations;619
20.1.4.1;Compositionality;621
20.1.4.2;Adequacy of First-Order Logic;622
20.1.4.2.1;Temporal, Modal, and Intensional Logics;623
20.1.4.2.2;Dynamic Logics;625
20.1.4.3;Ambiguity;626
20.1.5;Corpus-Based Approaches;627
20.1.6;Inference;628
20.1.6.1;Structural Inference;628
20.1.6.2;Statistical Inference;629
20.1.7;Summary;629
20.1.8;Bibliography;630
20.2;Natural Semantic Metalanguage;631
20.2.1;Introduction;631
20.2.2;Semantic Primes;632
20.2.3;Grammar of Semantic Primes;634
20.2.4;Using Natural Semantic Metalanguage for Lexical Semantics (Explications);634
20.2.4.1;Explicating Directly into Semantic Primes;635
20.2.4.1.1;Verbs kill and break;635
20.2.4.1.2;Adjectives sad and unhappy;635
20.2.4.1.3;The Noun friend;636
20.2.4.2;Explicating Complex Concepts Using Semantic Molecules;636
20.2.5;Other Uses of Semantic Primes;638
20.2.6;Bibliography;638
20.3;Natural versus Nonnatural Meaning;639
20.3.1;Grice’s Distinction;639
20.3.2;Grice’s Theory of Non-natural Meaning;639
20.3.3;Other Remarks;640
20.3.4;Bibliography;640
20.4;Negation;640
20.4.1;Classical and Nonclassical Negation;640
20.4.2;Negation and Polarity;642
20.4.3;Negation Versus Denial;643
20.4.4;Metalinguistic Negation;644
20.4.5;Bibliography;646
20.5;Neo-Gricean Pragmatics;647
20.5.1;The Hornian System;647
20.5.2;The Levinsonian System;648
20.5.3;Further Neo-Gricean Contributions;650
20.5.4;Bibliography;650
20.6;Neologisms;651
20.6.1;Neologisms Based on Common Word Formation Devices;651
20.6.1.1;Affixation;652
20.6.1.2;Conversion;652
20.6.1.3;Clipping and Acronyms;652
20.6.2;Blends;652
20.6.2.1;The Structure of Blends;652
20.6.2.2;Splinters Become Morphemes;653
20.6.3;Trendy Neologisms;653
20.6.4;Bibliography;654
20.6.5;Relevant Websites;654
20.7;Nominalism;655
20.7.1;Extreme Realism: Plato’s Ideal Exemplars;655
20.7.2;Moderate Realism or Conceptualism: Aristotle’s Universals;655
20.7.3;The Moderate Realism/Conceptualism of Medieval Aristotelians;656
20.7.4;Abstraction, Induction, and Essentialism;656
20.7.5;The Ontological Commitments of Moderate Realism;656
20.7.6;Late Medieval and Modern Nominalism;657
20.7.7;Nominalism, Antirealism, and Skepticism;658
20.7.8;Bibliography;658
20.8;Nonmonotonic Inference;659
20.8.1;Bibliography;661
20.9;Nonstandard Language Use;662
20.9.1;Bibliography;665
20.10;Number;665
20.10.1;Nominal and Verbal Number;665
20.10.2;Number as an Obligatory Category;666
20.10.3;The Nominals Involved in the Number System;666
20.10.4;The Semantics of Number;668
20.10.5;Number Values;668
20.10.5.1;The Dual;668
20.10.5.2;The Trial;668
20.10.5.3;The Paucal;668
20.10.5.4;The Largest Systems;669
20.10.6;Number Mismatches and the Agreement Hierarchy;670
20.10.7;Number and Numerals;671
20.10.8;Conclusion;671
20.10.9;See also;671
20.10.10;References;671
20.11;Numerals;673
20.11.1;Numeral Systems: Their Structure and Development;673
20.11.2;Morphology and Syntax of Numeral Expressions;674
20.11.3;Bibliography;675
21;O;676
21.1;Onomasiology and Lexical Variation;676
21.1.1;The Scope of Onomasiological Research;676
21.1.2;The Contribution of Various Traditions of Research;677
21.1.3;A Conceptual Map of Onomasiology;678
21.1.4;Bibliography;678
21.2;Operators in Semantics and Typed Logics;679
21.2.1;lambda-terms;679
21.2.2;Equivalent Terms and Alphabetic Variance;680
21.2.3;Substitution;680
21.2.4;ß-conversion;681
21.2.5;Alternative Presentations;681
21.2.5.1;Congruence;681
21.2.5.2;Nameless Terms;681
21.2.5.3;Combinatory Logic;682
21.2.6;Parameters of Variation;682
21.2.6.1;Additional Operators;683
21.2.7;Types;683
21.2.7.1;Church Typing;683
21.2.7.2;Curry Typing;684
21.2.7.3;Resource-sensitivity;685
21.2.8;Linguistic Applications of the lambda-calculus;685
21.2.8.1;The Extensional Subsystem of Montague’s PTQ;685
21.2.9;Bibliography;691
22;P;694
22.1;Partitives;694
22.1.1;Partitive and Pseudo-Partitive Nominal Constructions;694
22.1.2;Cross-Linguistic Variation and Geographic Distribution;695
22.1.3;Headedness in Pseudo-Partitive Constructions;696
22.1.4;Relations to Other Phenomena;697
22.1.5;References;697
22.2;Perfects, Resultatives, and Experientials;697
22.2.1;Bibliography;699
22.3;Performative Clauses;700
22.3.1;Necessary and Sufficient Conditions;700
22.3.1.1;Necessary Condition 1;700
22.3.1.2;Necessary Condition 2;701
22.3.1.3;Necessary Condition 3;701
22.3.1.4;Necessary Condition 4;701
22.3.1.5;Sufficient Condition;701
22.3.1.6;Necessary Condition 5;702
22.3.2;Other Issues;702
22.3.3;Bibliography;703
22.4;Philosophical Theories of Meaning;704
22.4.1;The Direct Reference Theory;704
22.4.2;Meaning as Truth Conditions;705
22.4.3;Sense and Reference;706
22.4.4;The Idea Theory;707
22.4.5;Meaning as Use;708
22.4.6;Quine’s Skepticism;709
22.4.7;Bibliography;709
22.5;Phrastic, Neustic, Tropic: Hare’s Trichotomy;710
22.5.1;Bibliography;711
22.6;Plurality;711
22.6.1;Bibliography;713
22.7;Polarity Items;714
22.7.1;Negative Polarity Items;714
22.7.2;Positive Polarity Items;716
22.7.3;Bibliography;716
22.8;Politeness;717
22.8.1;Introduction;717
22.8.2;Constructs of Politeness;717
22.8.2.1;The 'Social Norm View ';717
22.8.2.2;Pragmatic Approaches;717
22.8.2.3;Social Constructivist Approaches;719
22.8.3;Future Perspectives;720
22.8.4;Bibliography;720
22.8.5;Relevant Website;721
22.9;Politeness Strategies as Linguistic Variables;722
22.9.1;What Is Linguistic Politeness?;722
22.9.2;Politeness Theory;723
22.9.2.1;Criticisms of Brown and Levinson’s Theory;726
22.9.2.2;Measuring Politeness;726
22.9.3;Leech’s Politeness Principle;727
22.9.4;Post-Modern Approaches to Politeness;728
22.9.5;Social Variables and Politeness;730
22.9.6;Cross-Cultural Analyses of (Im)Politeness;730
22.9.7;Impoliteness;732
22.9.8;Where Next?;732
22.9.9;Bibliography;733
22.10;Polysemy and Homonymy;734
22.10.1;Evidence Used in Differentiating Homonyms and Polysemes;735
22.10.2;Theoretical Approaches to Polysemy and Homonymy;735
22.10.3;Bibliography;736
22.11;Possible Worlds;737
22.11.1;Bibliography;739
22.12;Pragmatic Determinants of What Is Said;739
22.12.1;Bibliography;742
22.13;Pragmatic Presupposition;742
22.13.1;Introduction;742
22.13.2;Relation with Semantic Presupposition;744
22.13.3;Relation with Conversational Implicature;745
22.13.4;Pragmatic Presuppositions: 'Classical ' Definitions;746
22.13.5;Pragmatic Presuppositions as Felicity Conditions;747
22.13.6;Toward a Pragmatic Definition of Pragmatic Presupposition;748
22.13.7;Bibliography;749
22.14;Pragmatics and Semantics;750
22.14.1;Critical Introduction: Metatheoretical Presuppositions as Ideological Norms Constraining the Empirical Sciences of Pragmatics a;750
22.14.2;Three Methodological Stances to Pragmatics and Semantics;751
22.14.2.1;The Componential View;751
22.14.2.2;The Perspectival View;751
22.14.2.3;The Critical Sociological View;752
22.14.3;The Boundary Problem;754
22.14.3.1;Semanticism;754
22.14.3.2;Complementarism;754
22.14.3.3;From Complementarism to Pragmaticism;755
22.14.4;Historical Contextualization of the Ideologies of Pragmatics and Semantics;755
22.14.5;Bibliography;757
22.15;Pre-20th Century Theories of Meaning;757
22.15.1;Early Theories of Meaning;757
22.15.2;Intension and Extension in Port-Royal Logic;758
22.15.3;The Recognition of the Historical and Cultural Nature of Meaning;759
22.15.3.1;The Recognition of the Genius of a Language;759
22.15.3.2;The Study of Metaphors;760
22.15.4;The Study of Synonymy;760
22.15.5;Condillac’s and the Ideacuteologues’ Semantics;761
22.15.6;Meaning in 19th-Century Linguistics;762
22.15.6.1;General Evolution;762
22.15.6.2;Semasiology in Germany;763
22.15.6.3;The Development of the Seacutemantique in France;763
22.15.6.4;From Sematology to Significs in England;763
22.15.6.5;Summary;763
22.15.7;Bibliography;764
22.16;Presupposition;764
22.16.1;Introduction;764
22.16.2;Operational Criteria;765
22.16.3;The Logical Problem;766
22.16.3.1;The Threat to Bivalence;766
22.16.3.2;The Russell Tradition;766
22.16.3.3;The Frege-Strawson Tradition;767
22.16.3.4;The Trivalent Solution;768
22.16.4;The Discourse Approach;769
22.16.5;The Structural Source of Presuppositions;770
22.16.6;Bibliography;771
22.17;Projection Problem for Presupposition;771
22.17.1;Bibliography;774
22.18;Pronouns;774
22.18.1;Bibliography;776
22.19;Proper and Common Names, Impairments of;777
22.19.1;Bibliography;780
22.20;Proper Names;781
22.20.1;What Is a Proper Name?;781
22.20.1.1;Proper Names and Proper Nouns;781
22.20.2;Personal Name Inventories;781
22.20.2.1;Gender-Specific Names;781
22.20.2.2;Change in Name Popularity;781
22.20.2.3;Nicknames;782
22.20.2.4;Personal Names for Roles;782
22.20.2.5;Proper Names That Shift to Common Nouns;782
22.20.3;Names for Things Other Than Persons;782
22.20.3.1;Animal Names;782
22.20.3.2;Names for Rock Bands;783
22.20.3.3;Street Names;783
22.20.3.4;Brand Names;783
22.20.4;Alternative Names;783
22.20.5;Cognates and Translations;783
22.20.6;Philosophical Aspects of Names;784
22.20.7;Bibliography;784
22.21;Proper Names: Philosophical Aspects;785
22.21.1;What Are Proper Names?;785
22.21.2;Two Central Issues: Meaning and Reference;785
22.21.3;Theories of Meaning;785
22.21.3.1;Millian Theories;785
22.21.3.2;Description Theories;785
22.21.4;Theories of Reference;786
22.21.4.1;Description Theories;787
22.21.4.2;Causal Theories;787
22.21.4.3;Hybrid Theories;788
22.21.5;Other Expressions;788
22.21.5.1;Definite Descriptions;788
22.21.5.2;Natural Kind Terms;788
22.21.6;Bibliography;788
22.22;Propositional and Predicate Logic;789
22.22.1;Introduction;789
22.22.2;Predicate Calculus;790
22.22.3;Propositional Calculus;795
22.22.4;Bibliography;796
22.23;Propositional Attitude Ascription;796
22.23.1;Bibliography;800
22.24;Propositional Attitudes;801
22.24.1;Bibliography;804
22.25;Propositions;805
22.25.1;Roles Played by Propositions;805
22.25.2;Propositions as Abstract Entities;805
22.25.3;Two Approaches: Structured and Structureless Entities;806
22.25.4;Two Structured Approaches: Russellian and Fregean;806
22.25.5;Ontology or Semantics?;807
22.25.6;A Problem for the Structureless Approach;807
22.25.7;Problems for the Structured Approaches;807
22.25.8;Bibliography;809
22.26;Prosody;810
22.26.1;Linguistic Meaning;810
22.26.2;Paralinguistic Meaning;811
22.26.3;Bibliography;811
22.27;Prototype Semantics;812
22.27.1;Bibliography;814
22.28;Psychology, Semantics in;815
22.28.1;Content versus Function Words;815
22.28.2;Content Words: Features and Decomposition;815
22.28.2.1;High-Dimensional Space Analysis;816
22.28.3;Grounded and Embodied Meaning;816
22.28.3.1;Procedural Semantics, Affordances, and Embodiment;816
22.28.3.2;The Indexical Hypothesis;817
22.28.3.3;Combining Words: Compositionality and Blending;817
22.28.4;Function Words;818
22.28.4.1;Spatial Prepositions;818
22.28.4.2;Quantifiers and Expressions of Amount;819
22.28.5;Semantics in Processing;819
22.28.5.1;Ambiguity and Metonomy;819
22.28.5.2;Semantic Illusions;820
22.28.6;Bibliography;820
23;Q;822
23.1;Quantifiers;822
23.1.1;Standard Quantifiers: Some Linguistic Generalizations;822
23.1.2;Some Non-Standard Quantifiers;825
23.1.3;Bibliography;827
24;R;830
24.1;Reference and Meaning, Causal Theories;830
24.1.1;Reference, Meaning, and Causal Theories;830
24.1.2;The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference;830
24.1.3;The Causal Theory of Meaning;831
24.1.4;Problems and Prospects;832
24.1.5;Bibliography;832
24.2;Reference: Philosophical Theories;833
24.2.1;What Is Reference?;833
24.2.2;Descriptivism;834
24.2.2.1;Descriptivist Theories of Reference;834
24.2.2.2;Frege’s and Russell’s Versions of Descriptivism;834
24.2.2.3;Differences Between Descriptivist Views;835
24.2.3;Antidescriptivism and the Causal-Historical Theory of Reference;836
24.2.3.1;Problems With Descriptivism;836
24.2.3.2;The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference;837
24.2.3.3;Problems With the Causal-Historical Theory;837
24.2.4;Skepticism, Naturalism, and Minimalism About Reference;838
24.2.5;Summary;839
24.2.6;Bibliography;839
24.3;Referential versus Attributive;840
24.3.1;Donnellan’s Contrast;840
24.3.2;Donnellan’s Use of the Contrast against Russell;841
24.3.3;Pragmatic Treatments (Kripke);842
24.3.4;Semantic Treatments (Wettstein);843
24.3.5;Developments;843
24.3.6;Bibliography;844
24.4;Register;845
24.4.1;Introduction;845
24.4.2;Lexical and Grammatical Differences among Registers;846
24.4.2.1;Lexical Differences across Registers;846
24.4.2.2;Grammatical Differences across Registers;846
24.4.3;Overall Patterns of Register Variation: The MD Approach;847
24.4.4;Conclusion;850
24.4.5;Bibliography;850
24.5;Representation in Language and Mind;851
24.5.1;The Relationship between Language and Thought;851
24.5.2;Mental Representation as Basic;851
24.5.2.1;Information-Based Theories;852
24.5.2.2;Teleological Theories;852
24.5.2.3;Conceptual Role Theories;852
24.5.2.4;Constraints on a Theory of Mental Representation;853
24.5.3;Linguistic Representation as Basic;853
24.5.3.1;Norms-Based Theories;853
24.5.4;A Non-Reductive Proposal;853
24.5.5;Bibliography;854
24.6;Rhetoric, Classical;854
24.6.1;The Origins of Rhetoric;854
24.6.2;Defining Rhetoric;855
24.6.3;The Three Genres of Rhetoric;856
24.6.4;The Five Canons of Rhetoric;856
24.6.5;The Three Rhetorical Appeals;857
24.6.6;Classical Rhetoric in Postmodern Times;858
24.6.7;Bibiliography;858
24.6.8;Relevant Website;859
24.7;Rigid Designation;860
24.7.1;Introduction;860
24.7.2;Names and Rigidity;860
24.7.3;Types of Rigidity;860
24.7.4;Bibliography;861
24.8;Role and Reference Grammar, Semantics in;862
24.8.1;The Lexical Representation of Verbs;862
24.8.2;Semantic Roles;863
24.8.3;The Lexicon;867
24.8.4;The Semantics of Clause Linkage;868
24.8.5;Bibliography;870
25;S;872
25.1;Scope and Binding;872
25.1.1;Bibliography;874
25.2;Selectional Restrictions;875
25.2.1;Bibliography;876
25.3;Semantic Change;876
25.3.1;Introduction;876
25.3.2;Categories of Semantic Change;876
25.3.3;From the Perspective of Semantic Fields, Cognitive Linguistics, and Prototype Theory;878
25.3.4;From the Perspective of Neo-Gricean Pragmatics and Invited Inferencing Theory;879
25.3.5;From the Perspective of Work on Grammaticalization Theory;880
25.3.6;Constraints on Semantic Change;881
25.3.7;Conclusion;881
25.3.8;Bibliography;882
25.4;Semantic Change, the Internet and Text Messaging;883
25.4.1;Electronic Communication: Efficiency and Expressivity;883
25.4.2;Some Aspects of Semantic and Lexical Change in Netspeak and Texting;883
25.4.3;The Meanings of LOL: Semantic-Pragmatic Change in Electronic Communication;884
25.4.4;Conclusion: Diversity of Usages;885
25.4.5;Bibliography;886
25.5;Semantic Maps;886
25.5.1;Bibliography;889
25.6;Semantic Primitives;890
25.6.1;Bibliography;892
25.7;Semantic Value;893
25.7.1;Bibliography;897
25.8;Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary;898
25.8.1;The Philosophical Debate;898
25.8.2;The Mentalist Picture of the Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary;903
25.8.3;Bibliography;905
25.9;Sense and Reference;906
25.9.1;The Origins and Central Core of the Sense/Reference Distinction;906
25.9.2;More on Frege’s Distinction;907
25.9.3;Subsequent History, and Criticisms;907
25.9.4;Bibliography;908
25.10;Serial Verb Constructions;909
25.10.1;Introduction;909
25.10.2;Grammar and Semantics;909
25.10.2.1;Formal Features;909
25.10.2.2;Functional Features;910
25.10.3;Diachronic Aspects;910
25.10.3.1;Aspect;911
25.10.3.2;Case;911
25.10.3.3;Directional Markers;911
25.10.3.4;Grammaticalization;911
25.10.4;Typological Challenges;911
25.10.5;Bibliography;912
25.11;Situation Semantics;913
25.11.1;Guide to Literature;915
25.11.2;Bibliography;916
25.12;Sound Symbolism;916
25.12.1;Onomatopoeia;917
25.12.1.1;Reduplicatives;917
25.12.2;Phonesthemes;917
25.12.2.1;Initial Phonesthemes;917
25.12.2.1.1;Initial Single Consonant C;917
25.12.2.1.2;Initial Double Consonant CC;917
25.12.2.1.3;Initial Treble Consonant CCC-:;918
25.12.2.2;Final Phonesthemes;918
25.12.2.2.1;Final Vowel Plus Consonant V+C;918
25.12.2.2.2;Final Vowel Plus Two Consonants V+CC;919
25.12.2.2.3;Final Vowel Plus Three Consonants V+CCC;919
25.12.2.3;Vowel Phonesthemes (Phonetic Symbolism);919
25.12.2.4;Phonestheme Networks;920
25.12.3;Blends;920
25.12.4;Universality of Sound Symbolism;921
25.12.4.1;Onomatopoeia;921
25.12.4.2;Phonesthemes;921
25.12.5;Sound Symbolism in Poetry and Literature;922
25.12.6;Secondary Sound Symbolism;922
25.12.6.1;Spoonerisms;922
25.12.6.2;Rhyming Slang;922
25.12.6.3;Malapropisms;923
25.12.6.4;Folk Etymology;923
25.12.6.5;Intonation;923
25.12.6.6;Gesture;923
25.12.6.7;The Iconicity of Language;924
25.12.7;Bibliography;924
25.13;Spatial Expressions;925
25.13.1;Introduction;925
25.13.2;The Scope of Spatial Semantics;925
25.13.3;Basic Spatial Semantic Concepts;925
25.13.3.1;Trajector;926
25.13.3.2;Landmark;926
25.13.3.3;Frame of Reference;926
25.13.3.4;Region;927
25.13.3.5;Path;928
25.13.3.6;Direction;928
25.13.3.7;Motion;928
25.13.4;Theoretical Controversies;929
25.13.4.1;Semantic or Conceptual;929
25.13.4.2;Localization or Distribution;929
25.13.4.3;Semantic or Pragmatic;930
25.13.4.4;The Nature of Spatial Polysemy;930
25.13.5;Summary;931
25.13.6;Bibliography;931
25.14;Specificity;932
25.14.1;Bibliography;935
25.15;Speech Act Verbs;935
25.15.1;Definition and Terminology;935
25.15.2;Classes of Speech Act Verbs;935
25.15.3;Speech Acts and Speech Act Verbs;938
25.15.4;Performativity;939
25.15.5;Bibliography;940
25.16;Speech Acts;940
25.16.1;J. L. Austin;940
25.16.1.1;The Performative/Constative Dichotomy;940
25.16.1.2;Austin’s Felicity Conditions on Performatives;941
25.16.1.3;Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Speech Acts;942
25.16.2;J. R. Searle;943
25.16.2.1;Searle’s Felicity Conditions on Speech Acts;943
25.16.2.2;Searle’s Typology of Speech Acts;944
25.16.3;Indirect Speech Acts;945
25.16.4;Speech Acts and Culture;947
25.16.4.1;Cross-Cultural Variation;947
25.16.4.2;Interlanguage Variation;948
25.16.5;Bibliography;948
25.17;Speech Acts and AI Planning Theory;949
25.17.1;Language and Action;949
25.17.2;Artificial Intelligence Planning Theory;950
25.17.2.1;The STRIPS Formalism;951
25.17.2.2;Knowledge, Belief, and Action;953
25.17.3;Problems;954
25.17.4;Bibliography;956
25.18;Speech Acts and Grammar;956
25.18.1;Language as Action: Performatives vs Constatives;956
25.18.1.1;What About Grammar?;957
25.18.2;Locution, Illocution, Perlocution;959
25.18.2.1;What About Grammar?;959
25.18.3;Categorizing Speech Acts;960
25.18.3.1;What About Grammar?;961
25.18.4;Bibliography;962
25.19;Stereotype Semantics;962
25.19.1;Bibliography;965
25.20;Summarization of Text: Automatic;966
25.20.1;Introduction;966
25.20.1.1;Terminology;966
25.20.2;Human Abstractors;967
25.20.2.1;Guidelines;967
25.20.2.2;Abstracting Behavior;968
25.20.2.3;Analysis of Empirical Abstracts;968
25.20.2.4;Relation of Abstracts to Sources;968
25.20.2.5;Challenges;968
25.20.3;Summarization Approaches: Overview;969
25.20.4;Producing Extracts;969
25.20.4.1;Early Approaches;969
25.20.4.2;Modern Approaches;969
25.20.4.2.1;Discourse-Level Features;970
25.20.4.2.2;Framework for Sentence Extraction;971
25.20.4.2.3;Corpus-Based Approaches;972
25.20.4.2.4;ImprovinSummary Coherence;973
25.20.5;Producing Abstracts;974
25.20.5.1;Cut-and-Paste Abstracts;974
25.20.5.2;Template-based Abstracts;975
25.20.6;Multidocument Summarization;975
25.20.6.1;Shallow Approaches;976
25.20.6.1.1;Relevance Versus Redundancy;976
25.20.6.1.2;Cohesion-based Models;976
25.20.6.1.3;Application: Biographical Summarization;976
25.20.6.2;Deep Approaches;976
25.20.6.2.1;Paraphrasing;976
25.20.6.2.2;Template Comparison;977
25.20.7;Summarization Evaluation;978
25.20.7.1;Intrinsic Methods;978
25.20.7.1.1;Factors InfluencinSummary Variability;978
25.20.7.1.2;Studies of Human Agreement;979
25.20.7.1.3;Measuring Informativeness;979
25.20.7.1.4;Automatic Scoring;979
25.20.7.2;Extrinsic Methods;980
25.20.7.2.1;Relevance Assessment;980
25.20.7.2.2;Reading Comprehension;980
25.20.7.3;Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Methods;980
25.20.8;New Areas;981
25.20.8.1;Multimedia and Multimodal Summarization;981
25.20.8.2;Narrative Summarization;981
25.20.9;Conclusion;981
25.20.10;Bibliography;982
25.21;Synesthesia;983
25.21.1;Synesthesia in Thought;984
25.21.2;Synesthesia in Language;985
25.21.3;Bibliography;986
25.22;Synesthesia and Language;987
25.22.1;Colored Graphemes;987
25.22.2;Gustatory Phonemes;988
25.22.3;Structure versus Meaning;989
25.22.4;Semantic Categories as Synesthetic Inducers;990
25.22.5;Bibliography;991
25.22.6;Relevant Websites;992
25.23;Synonymy;992
25.23.1;Substitution and Synonymy;992
25.23.2;Avoidance of Synonymy;994
25.23.3;Current Approaches to Synonymy;994
25.23.4;Bibliography;994
25.24;Syntax-Semantics Interface;995
25.24.1;The Model of Perfection: Artificial Languages;995
25.24.2;Where Natural Languages Seem Imperfect;996
25.24.3;Theories of the Syntax-Semantics Mismatch;997
25.24.3.1;The Deep Split Structural Isomorphism Hypothesis;998
25.24.3.2;The Natural Language Perfection Hypothesis;1000
25.24.3.3;The Imperfections Reflect the Architecture of Grammars Hypothesis;1001
25.24.4;Shaking Things Up;1002
25.24.4.1;How Specified Is Grammatical Meaning?;1002
25.24.4.2;Where Does the Meaning Come From?;1004
25.24.5;See also;1004
25.24.6;Bibliography;1004
26;T;1006
26.1;Taboo Words;1006
26.1.1;The Nature of Taboo;1006
26.1.2;Taboo Words and the 'Naturalist Hypothesis ';1006
26.1.3;The Case of Naming Taboo;1007
26.1.4;When Name Taboo Extends into Word Taboo;1008
26.1.5;Bibliography;1009
26.2;Taboo, Euphemism, and Political Correctness;1009
26.2.1;Euphemism and Taboo;1009
26.2.2;Types of Euphemism;1010
26.2.2.1;Shortening;1010
26.2.2.2;Circumlocution;1010
26.2.2.3;Remodeling;1010
26.2.2.4;Semantic Change;1010
26.2.2.5;External Borrowing;1011
26.2.2.6;Internal Borrowing;1011
26.2.3;Dysphemism and Orthophemism;1011
26.2.4;Changing Taboos;1012
26.2.5;Political Correctness and X-Phemism;1013
26.2.6;X-Phemism and Language Change;1014
26.2.7;Political Correctness and Self-Censorship;1014
26.2.8;Final Remarks;1015
26.2.9;Bibliography;1016
26.3;Temporal Logic;1016
26.3.1;Tense Logic;1016
26.3.1.1;Syntax of Priorean Tense Logic;1016
26.3.2;Semantics of Tense Logic;1017
26.3.3;Extensions of Tense Logic;1018
26.3.3.1;Increasing the Expressive Power: 'Since ' and 'Until ';1018
26.3.3.2;The Indeterminate Future;1018
26.3.3.3;Interval Semantics;1018
26.3.4;Other Forms of Temporal Logic;1019
26.3.5;Bibliography;1020
26.4;Tense;1020
26.4.1;On Tense Marking;1020
26.4.2;The Semantics of Tense: Basic Principles;1020
26.4.2.1;Absolute Tenses (Present, Past, and Future);1021
26.4.2.2;Focal versus Nonfocal Tense Meanings;1022
26.4.3;Tense in Context: Pragmatics of Tense;1023
26.4.4;Relative Tenses and the (Present) Perfect;1024
26.4.4.1;Anterior (Relative Past) and Posterior (Relative Future) Tenses;1024
26.4.4.2;The (Present) Perfect;1025
26.4.5;Deviating from the Default Use;1026
26.4.6;Summary and Outlook;1026
26.4.7;Bibliography;1027
26.5;Thematic Structure;1027
26.5.1;Introduction;1027
26.5.2;Pamacrndotini’s Kamacrrakas;1028
26.5.3;Thematic Roles in Modern Generative Grammar;1029
26.5.4;Decomposition Approaches;1030
26.5.5;Aspectual Decomposition;1031
26.5.6;Proto-Roles and Macro-Roles;1032
26.5.7;Composing Complex Word Meaning in the Syntax;1032
26.5.8;Bibliography;1034
26.6;Thesauruses;1035
26.6.1;Defining 'Thesaurus ';1035
26.6.2;The Thesaurus in Dictionary Research;1035
26.6.3;Thesauruses in Specific Languages;1040
26.6.4;Interdisciplinary Aspects;1041
26.6.5;Bibliography;1042
26.7;Thought and Language;1043
26.7.1;The Relative Priority of Thought and Language;1043
26.7.2;The Cartesian View;1044
26.7.3;Behaviorism;1045
26.7.4;Sellars: Language as a Precondition for Thought;1045
26.7.5;A Closer Look at the Relation between Thought and Language;1047
26.7.6;Bibliography;1048
26.8;Truth Conditional Semantics and Meaning;1048
26.8.1;Bibliography;1052
26.9;Type versus Token;1052
26.9.1;The Distinction;1052
26.9.2;Its Usefulness;1053
26.9.3;Universals;1053
26.9.4;A Related Distinction;1053
26.9.5;Do Types Exist?;1054
26.9.6;Bibliography;1055
27;U;1056
27.1;Use Theories of Meaning;1056
27.1.1;Bibliography;1058
28;V;1060
28.1;Vagueness;1060
28.1.1;The Sorities Paradox (Paradox of the Heap);1060
28.1.2;Vagueness Is (Almost) Ubiquitous;1060
28.1.3;Comparatives, Superlatives, Measure Phrases;1061
28.1.4;Vagueness in Context;1061
28.1.5;Vagueness versus Ambiguity;1062
28.1.6;Logical Behavior;1062
28.1.7;Vagueness as Ignorance;1062
28.1.8;Fuzzy Logic (Multivalued Logic);1062
28.1.9;Supervaluation;1062
28.1.10;Higher-Order Vagueness;1063
28.1.11;Bibliography;1063
28.2;Vagueness: Philosophical Aspects;1064
28.2.1;Hallmarks of Vagueness;1064
28.2.2;Three Philosophical Debates About Vagueness;1064
28.2.3;Philosophical Theories of Vagueness;1064
28.2.4;Bibliography;1066
28.3;Virtual Objects;1066
28.3.1;Bibliography;1069
29;W;1070
29.1;WordNet(s);1070
29.1.1;The Princeton WordNet;1070
29.1.1.1;Background and Motivation;1070
29.1.1.2;Design and Contents;1070
29.1.1.3;Coverage;1070
29.1.1.4;Relations;1070
29.1.2;Nouns in WordNet;1070
29.1.2.1;Hyponymy;1070
29.1.2.1.1;Types vs. instances;1070
29.1.2.2;Meronymy;1070
29.1.3;Verbs;1071
29.1.4;Adjectives;1071
29.1.5;Inheritance and Reversibility;1071
29.1.6;WordNet as a Thesaurus;1072
29.1.7;WordNet as a Tool for Disambiguation;1072
29.1.8;Limitations of WordNet;1072
29.1.9;Other Wordnets;1073
29.1.9.1;The EuroWordNet Model (EWN);1073
29.1.9.2;Global WordNets;1074
29.1.10;See also;1074
29.1.11;Bibliography;1074
29.1.12;Relevant Websites;1075
30;Index;1076