Wallace Co-operative Enterprise Building a Better World

1. Auflage 2013
ISBN: 978-1-62287-400-2
Verlag: First Edition Design Publishing
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: Wasserzeichen (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 100 Seiten

The purpose of this book is to introduce you in considerable detail to what we call the ‘co-operative enterprise’, and to explore with you the broader question of why co-operatives are important in today’s world.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Wallace, Greg

Leseproben

Craig’s Take on Co-operation, Competition, and Conflict
  John G. Craig, also known as John (Jack) Craig,[18] a former university professor and author of various papers and books on co-operation and co-operatives, introduces us to the notion of co-operation from both a sociological and an organizational perspective. Craig, who has throughout his lifetime studied co-operation and co-operative organizations in Canada and internationally, is able to give us a more in-depth look at what co-operation actually involves. Craig begins by reaffirming and elaborating on what Kropotkin had said some 120 years earlier. In short, those species that co-operate the most survive and flourish. In terms of the human species man has been living in clans and tribes since the dawn of the early Stone Age and from that time until the present, people have continued to build co-operative relations based on mutual aid. Co-operation, as more formally and perhaps more broadly defined by Craig, can include almost all of those forms of human interaction which sociologists refer to as social organization. Co-operation as a concept can be broken down into a variety of types, with more specific and precise meanings. The different types which Craig identifies are as follows: [19] Automatic co-operation refers to those co-ordinated activities or joint efforts of an impersonal nature which take place between individuals in physical proximity to each other. It is unplanned and often unnoticed by its participants. It may occur as a group response to a common threat or simply as a response to an ordinary situation in which individuals have learned to co-operate. Examples of automatic co-operation are queuing at bus stops and supermarket check-out counters, and the movement of people in and out of crowded elevators.   Spontaneous co-operation is perhaps the oldest and most natural form of co-operation in human interaction. It is also the most widespread in everyday life. Its basis is the friendly relationships that often exits between individuals, and it is un-prescribed by tradition, contract, or command. This type of co-operation takes place within the family, in neighbourhood groups and play groups, and through other close personal forms of association. Small group research, family studies and research into friendship groups have provided considerable information on the occurrence of spontaneous co-operation in a variety of settings. In these settings, when common action is required, individuals are generally quick to co-operate because of the strength of the social ties between them.   Traditional co-operation is regulated, not by instinct, volition nor circumstance, but rather by the traditional social norms of the participants. It is often part of the moral fabric of the community and is described in community traditions. Examples of traditional co-operation include the sharing of food in hunting and gathering cultures, community barn-raisings, and volunteer fire brigades, as well as the organization of much of communal life. In these cases, co-operative behaviour may be regarded as simply the moral and correct way of living.   Directed co-operation is based on demand. There is a clear and well-accepted goal, and individuals are directed to co-operate in order to achieve that goal. An important example of directed co-operation is found in a military organization whose goal is to win a battle. Soldiers are commanded to co-operate, in accordance with specific orders as to how they should organize and conduct themselves in the course of the battle. This type of co-operation is very prevalent in modern society, and is facilitated by an organizational hierarchy. The hierarchy provides a means of co-ordinating highly specialized work carried out by many individuals so that it is directed towards the achievement of organizational goals. Co-operation is thus the result of formal structural arrangements with which the individual is expected to comply, by reason of his or her participation in the organization. Football, basketball, hockey, and other organized team sports employ this form of directed co-operation.   Contractual co-operation is prevalent in modern industrialized society. In this case, co-operation is both voluntary and formalized, based upon an explicit agreement between individuals to work together towards the achievement of a common goal. Often a separate organization is established in which membership is required, and legal sanctions are set out regarding the duration of the co-operative contract and the specific conditions of membership. Contractual co-operation is not confined to voluntary organizations. It is also evident in many work-related situations. For example, in applying for and accepting a job, the individual in effect undertakes a voluntary commitment to co-operate in working towards the employer's goals and objectives. He/she also accepts certain terms and conditions of employment (the equivalent of membership in a voluntary organization). Incidentally, the remainder of this book deals primarily with contractual co-operation.   Appreciating the varying dynamics involved in different types of co-operation helps us to understand why in some circumstances people or groups co-operate and in other circumstances they do not. Craig points out two particular behaviors,[20] namely ‘competition’ and ‘conflict’ are as much a part of human history as co-operation behavior. Competition often implies a win-lose situation. In economic terms, it is argued that competition between providers can lower prices to the consumer and improve the quality of goods and services available. In theory, one or more providers must lose to a better provider and as a consequence consumers reap the benefits. While competition can provide consumer benefits as well as shareholder returns to top performers, it is also true that in today’s world of multinational “too big to fail corporations”, business competition tends to be more of an implied ideal than a practical reality. When two people interact, the interaction will be either co-operative, meaning that both participants can win if the goal is achieved, or competitive, in which the fact that one wins means that the other necessarily loses. In such a situation, it appears that competition and co-operation are opposites. This is true for dyads or very small groups; but in situations involving many individuals, the two concepts are independent and related in a much more complex way. A sports team may use a high degree of co-operation in order to develop effective plays against another team. The process within the team is co-operative, and the process between the teams is competitive. There must also be co-operation between the competing teams during events. There may also be an element of competition among the players in the co-operating unit, where they are vying with each other for personal gains (such as gaining prestige, playing a specific position or earning salary increases). Competition of this kind does not need to detract from the team's co-operative effort, and it may in fact, increase its chances of winning. Similarly, people in organizations may compete for high status roles, yet maintain a high degree of co-operation to achieve the goals of the organization. The competition of ideas is a very important aspect of participation and co-operation, though it is also true that people can effectively – sometimes very effectively – think through problems or develop different ways of thinking about a subject by thinking in groups. University students often compete for the best marks in their studies, although some of their best experiences might come from projects in which they worked with other students. Competition for the best ideas raises the quality of the output from the lowest common denominator to the group achieving excellence. To view these two concepts as opposites may therefore be useful for groups of two, but it can be misleading in larger human groups. On the other hand, discovering the best ideas may take place through group discussions and collaboration. For example, there are cases in which co-operative organizations, such as credit unions, actively compete with each other for business volume based on services provided, yet they co-operate in matters such as marketing, risk management, member and employee education, information technology, and government relations.[21] If human behaviour is viewed through the overly simplistic lens of individual competition, it seems only natural for people to consider competition as the opposite of co-operation. This flawed analysis has been often mistakenly and implicitly associated with the thought of Adam Smith and his book An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. In passing comments, he referred to the concept of the ‘invisible hand’,[22] whereby...