Small Cannabis

A Complete Guide
1. Auflage 2016
ISBN: 978-1-4987-6164-2
Verlag: CRC Press
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 597 Seiten

Cannabis sativa is best known as the source of marijuana, the world’s most widely consumed illicit recreational drug. However, the plant is also extremely useful as a source of stem fiber, edible seed oil, and medicinal compounds, all of which are undergoing extremely promising research, technological applications, and business investment. Indeed, despite its capacity for harm as a recreational drug, cannabis has phenomenal potential for providing new products to benefit society and for generating extensive employment and huge profits. Misguided policies, until recently, have prevented legitimate research on the beneficial properties of cannabis, but there is now an explosion of societal, scientific, and political support to reappraise and remove some of the barriers to usage. Unfortunately, there is also a corresponding dearth of objective analysis. Towards redressing the limitation of information, Cannabis: A Complete Guide is a comprehensive reference summarizing botanical, business, chemical, ecological, genetic, historical, horticultural, legal, and medical considerations that are critical for the wise advancement and management of cannabis in its various forms.

This book documents both the risks and benefits of what is indisputably one of the world’s most important species. The conflicting claims for medicinal virtues and toxicological vices are examined, based mainly on the most recent authoritative scientific reviews. The attempt is made consistently to reflect majority scientific opinion, although many aspects of cannabis are controversial. Aside from the relevance to specialists, the general public should find the presentation attractive because of the huge interest today in marijuana. Unfortunately, society has become so specialized and compartmentalized that most people have limited appreciation of the importance of science to their lives, except when a topic like marijuana becomes sensationalized. This review of cannabis can serve as a vehicle for public education in the realm of science and technology. Indeed, towards the goal of disseminating the important information in this book to a wide audience, the presentation is user-friendly, concise, and well-illustrated in the hope that non-specialists will find the topics both informative and entertaining.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Small, Ernest

Fachgebiete

• Naturwissenschaften Biowissenschaften Botanik
• Naturwissenschaften Biowissenschaften Biowissenschaften
• Naturwissenschaften Chemie Chemie Allgemein

Inhaltsverzeichnis

IntroductionThe cannabis plant"Cannabis" – a comprehensive termThe widespread misunderstanding that marijuana is "flowers" of Cannabis sativaWhy cannabis is controversialSexual reproduction in CannabisHow the four kinds of horses are similar to the four kinds of Cannabis sativa Wild plantsFiber plantsOther so-called "hemps""Indian hemp"Oilseed plantsIntoxicating drug plantsGenetic relationships of different kinds of cannabis plantsThe criminalization and suppression of cannabisThe re-legitimization of cannabisThe decriminalization and resurrection of industrial (non-intoxicating) cannabis"Hemp" vs. "marijuana"The decriminalization and resurrection of medical cannabisThe decriminalization and resurrection of recreational cannabisBenefit/harm analysis of the many ways that cannabis is usedThe interface of cannabis science and public policyCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
Prehuman and early history of Cannabis sativaThe family tree and prehuman antiquity of Cannabis sativaThe incredibly parallel histories of Cannabis and its closest relative, Humulus (hop)Uncertainty regarding early historical association of Cannabis and peopleLocation of the pre-human distribution rangeThe habitat of ancient wild Cannabis sativaThe "camp-follower" model of early domestication of Cannabis sativaHow adaptation to streamside soils led to water-based fiber extractionEarliest geographical centers of the four kinds of domesticated Cannabis sativaEarly old world geography of fiber and marijuana classes of Cannabis sativaEarly migrations of fiber and marijuana kinds of domesticated Cannabis sativaCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior

The ecology of wild Cannabis sativaThe nature of "wildness"Evaluating wildness in Cannabis sativa populationsGeography of wild Cannabis sativaHabitats & plant communities occupiedClimate limitationsTemperatureWaterLight intensityPhotoperiodEdaphic (soil) limitationsSeed ecologyAppearanceSizeSeed sheddingProtective thick shellCamouflageGermination behaviorDormancyLongevityEnvironmental factors controlling germinationSeedling developmentSeed distribution agentsBirdsBird feedWaterMammalsInsectsAllelopathyRoot ecologyStem ecologyPhenotypic plasticity: a key to successBiotic competitorsHuman eradication effortsPests & diseasesCuriosities of science, technology and human behaviour
Sex expressionWhat is "sex" in flowering plants?Maleness and femaleness in Cannabis in comparison to other flowering plantsDifferences between male and female cannabis plantsMale plants and their flowersPollen dispersalFemale plants and the pollination of their flowersRemarkable development of unpollinated female flowersMonoecious ("hermaphroditic") kinds of Cannabis sativaCross-fertilization and self-fertilizationGenetic determination of sexSex-associated DNA markersEnvironmental determination of sexModification of sex by hormonal treatmentReduction and elimination of males for human purposesCulling of most male plants when seeds are produced for industrial hempCulling of all male plants for purpose of producing marijuanaSelection of female-predominant monoecious strainsGeneration of seeds producing "all-female" plantsUse of environment and/or hormones by marijuana growers to increase females Cloning of female plantsSummary of the demise of male cannabis under domesticationCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
PhotoperiodismIntroduction to reproductive photoperiodism in Cannabis sativaAutoflowering (day-neutral) plantsLatitudinal photoperiodic adaptationThe interaction of photoperiodism, killing frosts and seed productionPhotoperiodic problems for plant of northern origin grown close to the equatorPhotoperiodic problems for plant of semi-tropical origin grown in northern latitudesPhotoperiodic problems for semi-equatorial drug strains in northern climatesUnsuitable photoperiod may not be the only cause of poor performance Curiosities of science, technology and human behavior
Shoot and foliage architectureAnatomy and morphologyBasic leaf botany of CannabisShoot architecture of wild plantsShoot architecture of plants grown in different field configurations Shoot architecture of fiber cropsReducing height of marijuana plants"Sea of green" and "screen of green" cultivation methods Reducing height of fiber plantsResistance to catastrophic stem damageFoliage architectureProtective unicellular hairsCystolithic trichomesSimple trichomesCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
FiberIntroduction to fiberHistoryAncient hemp historyThe golden age of hemp in the western worldThe labor-intensive pre-twentieth century periodThe twentieth century great demise of hemp in the western worldThe recent renaissance The two basic classes of stem fiber: phloem (bast) and xylem (wood)Anatomy of the stemThe economically important stem tissuesAmbiguities regarding stem tissue anatomical termsHow the three kinds of fiber contribute to stem strengthXylem fiberPrimary phloem fiberSecondary phloem fiberLignificationFiber qualitiesFiber extraction technologiesHow domestication has altered Cannabis sativa for fiber productionEconomic productsTextiles, fabrics and clothingSubstrates for plant growth Horticultural planting mediaBiodegradable mulchCordage productsPressed and molded fiber productsPaper & specialty pulp productsBuilding construction productsConstruction wood products (pressboard, moldings) Concretized and masonry construction products (stucco, building blocks, tiles)Animal bedding based on hurds Plastic biocompositesCompressed cellulose plasticsAgronomySecurity requirementsGeneral growth requirementsRoot growthSoil and fertilizationWater relationsTemperaturesSeed germinationMaintaining seed viability in storagePlanting requirementsRotationsWind, rain and hail damagePestsWeeds Higher plant parasitesMammalian pestsBirdsInsectsOther invertebratesFungiBacteriaVirusesHarvestYieldsStorageBreedingCultivarsEconomic statusMarket development and future needsCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
OilseedIntroduction to edible fixed oilIntroduction to hempseed and hemp oilHistoryOil extraction and processing technologyPressure extractionSolvent extractionNutritional qualities of hemp seed and oil Fatty acidsEssential fatty acidsMinor fatty acidsTocopherolsSterolsProteinArgininePhenolicsOther significant dietary constituentsEnvironmental control of the development of fatty acidsHow domestication has altered the plant for oilseed productionReview of key information presented in previous chaptersThe traditional use of tall, highly branched plants to produce hempseedThe use of short, compact plants to produce hempseedSelection for seed characteristicsSeed whitenessSeed size vs. seed quantityFatty acid qualityHull thicknessHemp seed and oil culinary limitationsProcessed food products for humansRaw hempseed sprouts for humansRecipe sourcesAnimal feedBeneficial aspectsHarmful aspectsNutraceutical extracts (dietary supplements), functional foods and fortified foodsCosmeceutical products (nutritional cosmetics)Industrial (non-edible) productsBiodieselTHC contamination of oilseed productsAgronomySoil and fertilizationTemperaturesPlantingPestsHarvestYieldsStorageBreedingCultivarsThe potential use of oilseed cultivars to produce CBD and "highless marijuana"Economic statusMarket development and future needsCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
Essential oilIntroduction to essential oilThe nature of cannabis essential oilPossible plant-protective functions of the essential oil of CannabisValue of cannabis terpenoids as commercial repellentsMedical significance of terpenes in cannabisWhy eliminating terpenes by irradiating medical marijuana may be harmfulEvolution of essential oil in domesticated cannabisOdor and other organoleptic qualities of marijuanaOdor has become a key selling criterion for marijuanaThe importance of terpene odor for oilseed cannabisOdor detection and law enforcementAgronomic productionCommercial productsRegulatory restrictionsEconomic prospectsMarket potential for cannabis essential oilBreeding cultivars for essential oil harvestBreeding marijuana strains for attractive terpene profileCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior

Minor usesBiomassMerits of Cannabis sativa as a source of biomassBiogasHemp solid fuelNon-seed use of hemp as livestock feedOrnamental useHemp as a protective companion plantNatural pesticidesHemp jewelryHempseed as fish baitHempseed as a growth medium for fungi and other microorganismsHemp as an agricultural pollen barrierEdible shoots (stems & foliage)Curiosities of science, technology and human behaviorCannabis chemistry: cannabinoids in cannabis, humans and other speciesGlandular trichomes of cannabis: the plant’s drug factories Cannabinoids in Cannabis sativaClarification of the term "psychoactive"Clarification of the term "drug"Basic chemistry of the cannabinoidsDecrease of intoxicant ability by transformation of THC to CBNVariation of cannabinoids among different kinds of cannabis plantsConversion of non-intoxicant CBD to intoxicant THC in the lab and in humansBiosynthesis and genetics of the cannabinoids of CannabisQuantitative variation of cannabinoids in different plant partsQuantitative variation of cannabinoids in relation to environmental factorsQuantitative variation of cannabinoids in relation to stress Quantitative variation of cannabinoids in relation to chromosome doublingQualitative variation of cannabinoids in relation to environmental factorsNature vs. nurture in the determination of cannabinoids of Cannabis sativaEnvironmental factors influencing qualitative development of cannabinoidsBreeding for high and low levels of cannabinoidsHigh-THC strainsLow-THC cultivarsTHC test protocols for industrial hempInformative online websites regarding THC sampling procedures for hempAdaptive purpose of the cannabinoidsExpanded definitions of cannabinoidsCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
Non-medical drug usageReliability of counterculture informationThe cannabis experienceBiphasic effectsSequence of psychological impactsPleasant psychological effectsUnpleasant psychological symptomsCouchlockPhysiological effectsHealth risksConcern for mental statusCannabis dependenceCannabis withdrawal syndromeMarijuana as a "gateway drug"Concern for lung functionSocietal vs. individual healthDriving risksRisk of contamination and adulteration of street marijuanaRisk of exposure to indoor grow-op environmentsRisk to dogsThe great debate: is cannabis relatively harmful or benign?Representative viewpoints that cannabis is relatively harmfulRepresentative viewpoints that cannabis is relatively benignGlobal usage of marijuanaA brief history of non-medical psychotropic usage of cannabis drugsModern spiritual usage of cannabisCannabiphobia and the cultural war on marijuanaGrowing public acceptance of marijuanaThe genetic "improvement" of marijuana due to law enforcementFormal botanical nomenclature and "strains" of Cannabis sativaThe evolution of high-THC strains"Sativa-type" and "indica-type," the two domesticated kinds of marijuana plantsSelection for color in marijuana strainsPlant productionDistortion of botanical and horticultural terms by the marijuana trade Technologies for preparing cannabis drugsMarijuanaTraditional hashishSolvent extractsAdvanced non-solvent technologies for preparing concentrates of gland headsWater extracts ("teas")Technologies for smoking and vaping cannabis drugsJoints & blunts Simple (non-filtering) pipesWater pipesVaporizersDabbingEdible cannabisPreferred modes of marijuana consumptionFake marijuanaEthical perspectives of decriminalization and legalization of recreational marijuanaCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
Medical marijuanaIntroduction to the controversyHow medical does marijuana have to be to qualify as "medical marijuana?"Medical marijuana as a pretext for non-medical useA brief history of medical usage of cannabisNon-cannabinoid medicinal componentsBias in research on medical marijuanaBias against euphoric medicinesThe issue of addictionThe issue of incapacitation (reduction in abilities) while intoxicatedTransfer of bias against THC to non-intoxicating cannabinoids The importance of experimental design in evaluating medical marijuanaThe precautionary principle in relation to medical marijuanaRecent authorized medical marijuana production and usagePharmacological terminology for marijuanaComparative therapeutic value of pure chemicals and herbal mixtures The medicinal importance of combining THC and CBDThe accidental medicinal value of "indica-type" strainsOverview of medical marijuana preparationsMedical marijuana drug delivery systemsSafer respiratory systemsConventional smokingValsalva maneuver and prolonged breath-holding Water pipes VaporizationOral consumptionSynthetic oral cannabis drugsDermal and mucosal drug absorptionTHC dosages, absorption rates & time course of effectsBioavailabilityDosagesPharmokineticsBlood concentrations of THC in relation to safe drivingThe endocannabinoid system as a basis for much of the medical value of marijuanaOverview of the endocannabinoid systemIntroduction to cell receptors and G protein-coupled receptorsEndocannabinoidsEndocannabinoid receptors Inter-cellular communication involving endocannabinoids The broad range of compounds affecting the endocannabinoid systemEffects of cannabinoids on non-endocannabinoid physiological systemsMedical importance of the endocannabinoid systemExtensive activity of the endocannabinoid system limits targeted therapyEvolution of the endocannabinoid system & potential for non-human patientsThe endocannabinoid system in relation to the lack of overdose marijuana mortalityLD50 (median lethal dose)Therapeutic indexComparative overdose lethality of cannabis and other drugsCannabinoids as a possible basis for eliminating the need for herbal medical marijuanaMedical conditions for which cannabis has or may have valueAlzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementiaAmyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, Lou Gehrig’s disease)Anorexia & appetite lossArthritis & rheumatism Brain injuryCancerCardiovascular diseasesAtherosclerosisHypertensionIschemiaDiabetesEpilepsyFibromyalgiaGastrointestinal diseasesGlaucomaHeadacheMigraineHuman immunodeficiency virus & acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Huntington’s diseaseInsomniaLiver diseaseMorning sicknessMultiple sclerosis and spasticityNeurodegenerative diseasesNeuropathyObesityOsteoporosisPainParkinson’s diseasePsychiatric disordersAddictionAnxietyAutism spectrum disorderAttention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)Bipolar disorderDepressionPosttraumatic stress disorderSchizophreniaSkin conditionsAcne & seborrhea AlopeciaDermatitis Hirsutism Pruritis Psoriasis Scleroderma Tourette’s syndromeMedical applications of specific cannabinoidsTetrahydrocannabinolCannabidiolArthritisCancerDiabetesEpilepsyInflammatory bowel diseasesNausea and vomitingNeurodegenerative diseasesPainPsychiatric disordersCannabinol Other natural cannabinoidsTetrahydrocannabivarinCannabigerolCannabichromeneCautions regarding medical marijuanaLimitations of expert medical guidance in the use of medical marijuanaAllergies due to Cannabis sativaIs marijuana a bona fide medicine? Tentative conclusionsMedical-ethical perspectives of legalization of medical marijuanaCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
Medical marijuana: productionThe need for high standards of professionalismFundamentals of marijuana plant productionOverview of productionPlanting density & yieldsIndoor yieldsOutdoor yieldsGovernmental production quotasGrowth mediaVegetative propagationLightingLight intensityLight qualityFluorescent lightingHigh pressure sodium lightingMetal halide lightingLED lightingRecommended lightingTemperatureAtmospheric growth conditionsHumidityAir-borne contaminants in relation to stickinessCarbon dioxide concentrationInsect controlHarvest & dryingProcessingStorageQuality controlMicrobiological safety and sterilizationMonitoring and controlling the production of standardized herbal marijuanaInformative online documents and websites regarding production of medical marijuanaSecurity considerationsBiotechnological approaches of potential importance to medicinal marijuanaIn vitro productionGenetic engineeringCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
The commercial marijuana revolutionA sea change for better or worseCommercial obscuration of the distinction between medical and recreational marijuanaPrescription drugs vs over-the-counter herbals Physician gatekeepers for hire to provide legal access to pseudopatientsPrescription drugs vs. over-the-counter herbalsThe evolution of physician acceptance of medical cannabisSoftening of medical oppositionMedicine by popular voteProfit-driven vs. health-driven medical marijuana Patient financial reimbursementMedical vs. recreational marijuana marketsThe role of "Big Tobacco"Professional niches in the developing marijuana business sectorOpposition to commercialization of recreational marijuanaMedical opposition to recreational marijuanaPolitical opposition to recreational marijuanaBadmouthing the competitionGrowing societal acceptance of recreational marijuana The need for caution in legitimizing marijuanaChronic consumptionEffects of increased availability of authorized cannabisEffects on prevalence of usageEffects on healthEffects on crime rateFinancial guestimates of the potential monetary value of recreational marijuanaEconomic effects of legitimizing marijuana on the illegitimate marijuana industry Costs of production of marijuanaElementary business hazards: will the "pot boom" become a "pot bubble?"Possible scenarios of success or collapse of sectors of the marijuana marketHerbalExtracts Why not harvest CBD from hemp?SyntheticsGenetically engineered Cannabis sativaMarketplace constraints related to "cheap highs"Comparative costs of pot and boozeCo-existence of black and white marketsAbsence of foreign competition for authorized marijuanaConsumer trendsMarket production models: big vs. small-scale businessesMarket outlet formatsState monopoly vs. private sector"Weed bars"Pot restaurantsHome delivery ("weed on wheels")Patient financial reimbursementAdvertisingPotency as a determinant of sales restrictionThe age of majority – a problematical determinant of sales and consumption restrictionsLegal considerations CautionsInternational treatiesLegal modelsThe NetherlandsUnited StatesUruguayOther countriesPatentsOpium poppy as a business model for marijuana productionLaughing gas as a business model for marijuana productionThe great irony: from counterculture narcotic to mass-marked commodityThe cannabis roads to heaven and hellThe precautionary principle in relation to commercial development of cannabisReasonable regulatory risk managementCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
SustainabilityThe reputation of the cannabis plant for sustainability How major crops harm the world and why Cannabis sativa can be beneficialComparative environmental friendliness of Cannabis sativa and other cropsBiocide reductionUsing up surplus manureMiscellaneous environmental advantagesEnvironmental disadvantagesSaving treesBioremediationWildlife supportEnvironmentally-friendly commercial productsHemp vs. cottonRecyclabilityCarbon sequesteringThermal insulation productsErosion control blankets State subsidization of industrial hemp – good or bad?Environmental cost of indoor production of marijuanaEcological damage from irresponsible illegal cultivation of marijuanaThe dangerous concept of employing bioweapons to eliminate marijuana plantsSustainability depends on using sustainable methodsCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior
Germplasm resourcesDefinition of germplasmIn situ vs. ex situ conservation of wild germplasmPrivate ownership of germplasm vs. long-term conservation in public collections World genebank situationSeed storage in genebanksClonal storage in genebanksCell and tissue storage in genebanksCore collectionsThe importance of N.I. VavilovSeed storage conditions for Cannabis sativaThe challenge of preventing pollen contamination of Cannabis sativa germplasm The shamefully inadequate state of germplasm preservation of Cannabis sativaThe germplasm importance of wild-growing Cannabis sativaThe germplasm importance of landraces of Cannabis sativaChinese germplasm of Cannabis sativaWorld genebank collections of Cannabis sativaEuropean "national collections" of Cannabis sativaThe Vavilov Institute collectionThe Gatersleben collectionNorth american public germplasm collections of Cannabis sativaGermplasm collections and the future of industrial hempGermplasm resources for fiberGermplasm resources for oilseedGermplasm resources for essential oilGermplasm collections and the future of medicinal & recreational marijuanaDatabasesIndustrial hempMedicinal & recreational cannabisCuriosities of science, technology and human behavior

Botanical classification and nomenclatural issuesTheoretical classification issuesScientific classifications often differScientific names are often ambiguousGeographical uncertainties complicate interpretation of groupsPossible relationships among wild ancestors, domesticates and escapesClassification difficulties due to hybridizationStereotypical thinking – a roadblock to biological classificatioClassification difficulties due to obliteration of populations by humansTaxonomic splitting and rank inflationThe semantic "legal species" issue (or dressing up a wolf in sheep’s clothing)Domestication complicates classificationA comparison of competing classification systems for CannabisSemantic difficulties concerning "sativa-type" and "indica-type" Cannabis sativaHomogenization due to gene flowAlternative taxonomic and nomenclatural treatmentsCannabis assemblages as conventional taxaCannabis cultivar assemblages as "groups" under the cultivated plant codeCrop-wild assemblages as non-formal groupsOccam’s razor in relation to the evolution and classification of CannabisHow many species of Cannabis merit recognition?A rationale for emphasizing the principal selected character complexes in classification A practical and natural taxonomy for CannabisIdentification key to subspecies and varieties of Cannabis sativa L.Curiosities of science, technology and human behavior

Über Autor(innen)

Dr. Ernest Small received a doctorate in plant evolution from the University of California at Los Angeles in 1969, and has since been employed with the Research Branch of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, where he presently holds the status of Principal Research Scientist. He is the author of 14 previous books, six of which received or were nominated for major awards. He has also authored over 350 scientific publications on plants. Dr. Small’s career has included dozens of appearances as an expert botanical witness in court cases, acting as an adviser to national governments, presenting numerous invited university and professional association lectures, supervising post-graduate students at various universities, participating in international societies and committees, journal editing and media interviews. He has been an adjunct professor at several universities, and currently has this status at Ryerson University in Toronto. Dr. Small is widely known for his work on hemp and marijuana, which has included development of a standard strain that has been the basis of all licensed medicinal marijuana in Canada for more than a decade, supplying over 100,000 patients. Dr. Small published two previous books and more than 40 research papers on Cannabis. He has received several professional honors, including: election as a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; the G.M. Cooley Prize of the American Association of Plant Taxonomists for work on the marijuana plant; the Agcellence Award for distinguished contributions to agriculture; the Queen Elizabeth Diamond Jubilee medal for contributions to science; the George Lawson Medal, the most prestigious award of the Canadian Botanical Association, for lifetime contributions to botany; and the Lane Anderson Award, a $10,000.00 prize for science popularization, received for "Top 100 Food Plants." His most recent books, "Top 100 Exotic Food Plants," and "North American Cornucopia: top 100 indigenous food plants," were finalists for the Botanical and Horticultural Libraries’ award.