Pepper / Gerba / Brusseau Environmental and Pollution Science

2. Auflage 2011
ISBN: 978-0-08-049479-1
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 552 Seiten

Environmental and Pollution Science, Second Edition, provides the latest information on the environmental influence of a significant number of subjects, and discusses their impact on a new generation of students. This updated edition of Pollution Science has been renamed to reflect a wider view of the environmental consequences we pay as a price for a modern economy. The authors have compiled the latest information to help students assess environmental quality using a framework of principles that can be applied to any environmental problem. The book covers key topics such as the fate and transport of contaminants, monitoring and remediation of pollution, sources and characteristics of pollution, and risk assessment and management. It contains more than 400 color photographs and diagrams, numerous questions and problems, case studies, and highlighted keywords. This book is ideally suited for professionals and students studying the environment, especially as it relates to pollution as well as government workers and conservationists/ecologists.* Emphasizes conceptual understanding of environmental impact, integrating the disciplines of biology, chemistry, and mathematics
* Topics cover the fate and transport of contaminants; monitoring and remediation of pollution; sources and characteristics of pollution; and risk assessment and management
* Includes color photos and diagrams, chapter questions and problems, and highlighted key words

Dr. Ian Pepper is currently a Professor at the University of Arizona. He is also Director of the University of Arizona, Environmental Research Laboratory (ERL) and the NSF Water and Environmental Technology (WET) Center. Dr. Pepper is an environmental microbiologist specializing in the molecular ecology of the environment. His research has focused on the fate and transport of pathogens in air, water, soils and wastes. His expertise has been recognized by membership on six National Academy of Science Committees and former memberships on an EPA FIFRA Science and Advisory Panel. Dr. Pepper is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Academy of Microbiology, the Soil Science Society of America, and the American Society of Agronomy. He is also a Board Certified Environmental Scientist within the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Scientists. He is the author or co-author of six textbooks; 40 book chapters; and over 180 peer-review journal articles.

Zielgruppe

Academic/professional/technical: Research and professional

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pepper, Ian

Gerba, Charles P.

Brusseau, Mark L.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Cover;1
2;Table of Contents;8
3;Preface;16
4;The Editors;18
5;Contributing Authors;19
6;The Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science (SWES) ;21
7;Part 1: Processes Affecting Fate and Transport of Contaminants;22
7.1;Chapter 1. The Extent of Global Pollution;24
7.1.1;1.1 Science and Pollution;25
7.1.2;1.2 Global Perspective of the Environment;26
7.1.3;1.3 Pollution and Population Pressures;27
7.1.4;1.4 Overview of Environmental Characterization;29
7.1.5;1.5 Advances in Analytical Detection Technology;31
7.1.6;1.6 The Risk Based Approach to Pollution Science;31
7.1.7;1.7 Waste Management, Site Remediation, and Ecosystem Restoration;33
7.1.8;References and Additional Reading;33
7.2;Chapter 2. Physical-Chemical Characteristics of Soils and the Subsurface ;34
7.2.1;2.1 Soil and Subsurface Environments;35
7.2.2;2.2 Solid Phase;35
7.2.3;2.3 Gaseous Phase;41
7.2.4;2.4 Liquid Phase;42
7.2.5;2.5 Basic Physical Properties;42
7.2.6;Questions and Problems;44
7.2.7;References and Additional Reading;44
7.3;Chapter 3. Physical-Chemical Characteristics of Waters;45
7.3.1;3.1 The Watery Planet;46
7.3.2;3.2 Unique Properties of Water;47
7.3.3;3.3 Mechanical Properties;48
7.3.4;3.4 The Universal Solvent;49
7.3.5;3.5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions;53
7.3.6;3.6 Light in Aquatic Environments;54
7.3.7;3.7 Oceans;55
7.3.8;3.8 Lakes and Reservoirs„The Lentic System;56
7.3.9;3.9 Streams and Rivers„The Lotic System;58
7.3.10;3.10 Groundwater„Water in the Subsurface;59
7.3.11;3.11 A Watershed Approach;65
7.3.12;Questions and Problems;65
7.3.13;References and Additional Reading;66
7.4;Chapter 4. Physical-Chemical Characteristics of the Atmosphere ;67
7.4.1;4.1 Chemical Composition;68
7.4.2;4.2 Physical Properties and Structure;70
7.4.3;Questions and Problems;78
7.4.4;References and Additional Reading;78
7.5;Chapter 5. Biotic Characteristics of the Environment;79
7.5.1;5.1 Major Groups of Organisms;80
7.5.2;5.2 Microorganisms in Surface Soils;84
7.5.3;5.3 Microorganisms in the Subsurface;90
7.5.4;5.4 Biological Generation of Energy;90
7.5.5;5.5 Soil as an Environment for Microbes;91
7.5.6;5.6 Activity and Physiological State of Microbes in Soil;93
7.5.7;5.7 Enumeration of Soil Bacteria via Dilution and Plating;94
7.5.8;5.8 Microorganisms in Air;94
7.5.9;5.9 Microorganisms in Surface Waters;97
7.5.10;Questions and Problems;98
7.5.11;References and Additional Reading;98
7.6;Chapter 6. Physical Processes Affecting Contaminant Transport and Fate ;99
7.6.1;6.1 Contaminant Transport and Fate in the Environment;100
7.6.2;6.2 Contaminant Properties;101
7.6.3;6.3 Advection;102
7.6.4;6.4 Dispersion;103
7.6.5;6.5 Mass Transfer;104
7.6.6;6.6 Transformation Reactions;104
7.6.7;6.7 Characterizing Spatial and Temporal Distributions of Contaminants ;104
7.6.8;6.8 Estimating Phase Distributions of Contaminants;106
7.6.9;6.9 Quantifying Contaminant Transport and Fate;107
7.6.10;Questions and Problems;108
7.6.11;References and Additional Reading;109
7.7;Chapter 7. Chemical Processes Affecting Contaminant Transport and Fate ;110
7.7.1;7.1 Introduction;111
7.7.2;7.2 Basic Properties of Inorganic Contaminants;111
7.7.3;7.3 Basic Properties of Organic Contaminants;115
7.7.4;7.4 Sorption Processes;118
7.7.5;7.5 Abiotic Transformation Reactions;122
7.7.6;Questions and Problems;125
7.7.7;References and Additional Reading;125
7.8;Chapter 8. Biological Processes Affecting Contaminant Transport and Fate ;126
7.8.1;8.1 Biological Effects on Pollutants;127
7.8.2;8.2 The Overall Process of Biodegradation;127
7.8.3;8.3 Microbial Activity and Biodegradation;129
7.8.4;8.4 Biodegradation Pathways;133
7.8.5;8.5 Transformation of Metal Pollutants;138
7.8.6;Questions and Problems;141
7.8.7;References and Additional Reading;141
8;Part 2: Monitoring, Assessment, and Regulation of Environmental Pollution;142
8.1;Chapter 9. Physical Contaminants;144
8.1.1;9.1 Particle Origins;145
8.1.2;9.2 Particle Size;145
8.1.3;9.3 Particles in Air or Aerosols;146
8.1.4;9.4 Particulates in Water;149
8.1.5;9.5 Summary;151
8.1.6;Questions and Problems;152
8.1.7;References and Additional Reading;152
8.2;Chapter 10. Chemical Contaminants;153
8.2.1;10.1 Introduction;154
8.2.2;10.2 Types of Contaminants;154
8.2.3;10.3 Sources: Agricultural Activities;154
8.2.4;10.4 Sources: Industrial and Manufacturing Activities;159
8.2.5;10.5 Sources: Municipal Waste;159
8.2.6;10.6 Sources: Service-Related Activities;161
8.2.7;10.7 Sources: Resource Extraction/Production;162
8.2.8;10.8 Sources: Radioactive Contaminants;162
8.2.9;10.9 Natural Sources of Contaminants;164
8.2.10;Questions and Problems;164
8.2.11;References and Additional Reading;164
8.3;Chapter 11. Microbial Contaminants;165
8.3.1;11.1 Water-Related Microbial Disease;166
8.3.2;11.2 Classes of Diseases and Types of Pathogens;167
8.3.3;11.3 Types of Pathogenic Organisms;168
8.3.4;11.4 Sources of Pathogens in the Environment;184
8.3.5;11.5 Fate and Transport of Pathogens in the Environment;186
8.3.6;11.6 Standards and Criteria for Indicators;187
8.3.7;Questions and Problems;189
8.3.8;References and Additional Reading;189
8.4;Chapter 12. The Role of Environmental Monitoring in Pollution Science ;191
8.4.1;12.1 Introduction;192
8.4.2;12.2 Sampling and Monitoring Basics;192
8.4.3;12.3 Statistics and Geostatistics;193
8.4.4;12.4 Sampling and Monitoring Tools;194
8.4.5;12.5 Soil and Vadose Zone Sampling and Monitoring;197
8.4.6;12.6 Groundwater Sampling and Monitoring;198
8.4.7;12.7 Surface Water Sampling and Monitoring;200
8.4.8;12.8 Atmosphere Sampling and Monitoring;200
8.4.9;12.9 Conclusions;202
8.4.10;Questions and Problems;203
8.4.11;References and Additional Reading;203
8.5;Chapter 13. Environmental Toxicology;204
8.5.1;13.1 History of Modern Toxicity in the United States;205
8.5.2;13.2 Toxic Versus Nontoxic;205
8.5.3;13.3 Exposure and Dose;205
8.5.4;13.4 Evaluation of Toxicity;207
8.5.5;13.5 Responses to Toxic Substances;214
8.5.6;13.6 Carcinogens;218
8.5.7;13.7 Mutagens;220
8.5.8;13.8 Teratogens;221
8.5.9;13.9 Chemical Toxicity: General Considerations;222
8.5.10;13.10 Chemical Toxicity: Selected Substances;223
8.5.11;Questions and Problems;232
8.5.12;References and Additional Reading;232
8.6;Chapter 14. Risk Assessment;233
8.6.1;14.1 The Concept of Risk Assessment;234
8.6.2;14.2 The Process of Risk Assessment;236
8.6.3;14.3 Ecological Risk Assessment;244
8.6.4;14.4 Microbial Risk Assessment;246
8.6.5;Questions and Problems;252
8.6.6;References and Additional Reading;252
8.7;Chapter 15. Environmental Laws and Regulations;254
8.7.1;15.1 Regulatory Overview;255
8.7.2;15.2 The Safe Drinking Water Act;255
8.7.3;15.3 The Clean Water Act;255
8.7.4;15.4 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act ;258
8.7.5;15.5 Federal Insecticide and Rodenticide Act;259
8.7.6;15.6 Clean Air Act;259
8.7.7;15.7 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) ;260
8.7.8;15.8 The Pollution Prevention Act;260
8.7.9;15.9 Other Regulatory Agencies and Accords;260
8.7.10;Questions and Problems;261
8.7.11;References and Additional Reading;261
9;Part 3: Land and Water Pollution Mitigation;262
9.1;Chapter 16. Soil and Land Pollution;264
9.1.1;16.1 Introduction;265
9.1.2;16.2 Surface Mining;265
9.1.3;16.3 Deforestation;266
9.1.4;16.4 Soil Acidity„Salinity;267
9.1.5;16.5 Soil Erosion;268
9.1.6;16.6 Agricultural Activities;270
9.1.7;16.7 Animal Wastes;274
9.1.8;16.8 Industrial Wastes With High Salts and Organics;275
9.1.9;16.9 Invasive Species;276
9.1.10;Questions and Problems;278
9.1.11;References and Additional Reading;279
9.2;Chapter 17. Subsurface Pollution;280
9.2.1;17.1 Groundwater as a Resource;281
9.2.2;17.2 Groundwater Pollution;282
9.2.3;17.3 Groundwater Pollution Risk Assessment;286
9.2.4;17.4 Point-Source Contamination;288
9.2.5;17.5 Diffuse-Source Contamination;293
9.2.6;17.6 Other Groundwater Contamination Problems;296
9.2.7;17.7 Sustainability of Groundwater Resources;298
9.2.8;Questions and Problems;299
9.2.9;References and Additional Reading;299
9.3;Chapter 18. Surface Water Pollution;300
9.3.1;18.1 Surface Freshwater Resources;301
9.3.2;18.2 Marine Water Resources;301
9.3.3;18.3 Sources of Surface Water Pollution;302
9.3.4;18.4 Sediments as Surface Water Contaminants;303
9.3.5;18.5 Metals as Surface Water Contaminants;305
9.3.6;18.6 Nutrients and Eutrophication of Surface Waters;307
9.3.7;18.7 Organic Compounds in Water;315
9.3.8;18.8 Enteric Pathogens as Surface Water Contaminants;317
9.3.9;18.9 Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs);321
9.3.10;18.10 Quantification of Surface Water Pollution;321
9.3.11;18.11 Determining BOD;325
9.3.12;18.12 Dilution of Effluents;327
9.3.13;18.13 Dye Tracing of Plumes;329
9.3.14;18.14 Spatial and Temporal Variation of Plume;330
9.3.15;18.15 Compliance Monitoring;331
9.3.16;Questions and Problems;332
9.3.17;References and Additional Reading;332
9.4;Chapter 19. Soil and Groundwater Remediation;333
9.4.1;19.1 Introduction;334
9.4.2;19.2 Superfund Process;334
9.4.3;19.3 Site Characterization;335
9.4.4;19.4 Remediation Technologies;339
9.4.5;Questions and Problems;354
9.4.6;References and Additional Reading;354
9.5;Chapter 20. Ecosystem Restoration and Land Reclamation ;355
9.5.1;20.1 Introduction;356
9.5.2;20.2 Site Characterization;356
9.5.3;20.3 Site Restoration;357
9.5.4;20.4 Site Monitoring;357
9.5.5;20.5 Approaches to Ecosystem Restoration;358
9.5.6;20.6 Land Reclamation;360
9.5.7;Questions and Problems;369
9.5.8;References and Additional Reading;369
10;Part 4: Atmospheric Pollution;370
10.1;Chapter 21. Sensory Pollutants, Electromagnetic Fields and Radiofrequency Radiation ;372
10.1.1;21.1 Introduction;373
10.1.2;21.2 Heat;373
10.1.3;21.3 Light;375
10.1.4;21.4 Noise Pollution;377
10.1.5;21.5 Odor as a Sensory Pollutant;380
10.1.6;21.6 Electromagnetic Fields and Radiofrequency;381
10.1.7;Questions and Problems;385
10.1.8;References and Additional Reading;385
10.2;Chapter 22. Indoor Air Quality;386
10.2.1;22.1 Fundamentals of Indoor Air Quality;387
10.2.2;22.2 Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants;387
10.2.3;22.3 Factors Influencing Exposure to Indoor Air;392
10.2.4;22.4 Monitoring IAQ;395
10.2.5;Questions and Problems;396
10.2.6;References and Additional Reading;397
10.3;Chapter 23. Atmospheric Pollution;398
10.3.1;23.1 Air Pollution Concepts;399
10.3.2;23.2 Sources, Types, and Effects of Air Pollution;400
10.3.3;23.3 Weather and Pollutants;409
10.3.4;23.4 Pollution Trends in the United States;413
10.3.5;Questions and Problems;414
10.3.6;References and Additional Reading;414
10.4;Chapter 24. Global Change;416
10.4.1;24.1 Introduction;417
10.4.2;24.2 Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect;418
10.4.3;24.3 Other Global Changes;424
10.4.4;24.4 Solutions to the Problems of Global Environmental Change ;430
10.4.5;Questions and Problems;432
10.4.6;References and Additional Reading;432
11;Part 5: Waste and Water Treatment and Management;434
11.1;Chapter 25. Industrial and Municipal Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal ;436
11.1.1;25.1 Introduction;437
11.1.2;25.2 Relevant Regulations for Industrial and Municipal Solid Wastes ;438
11.1.3;25.3 Major Forms of Industrial Wastes;438
11.1.4;25.4 Treatment and Disposal of Industrial Wastes;440
11.1.5;25.5 Reuse of Industrial Wastes;444
11.1.6;25.6 Treatment and Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste;445
11.1.7;25.7 Pollution Prevention;447
11.1.8;Questions and Problems;448
11.1.9;References and Additional Reading;449
11.2;Chapter 26. Municipal Wastewater Treatment;450
11.2.1;26.1 The Nature of Wastewater (Sewage);451
11.2.2;26.2 Modern Wastewater Treatment;453
11.2.3;26.3 Oxidation Ponds;460
11.2.4;26.4 Septic Tanks;462
11.2.5;26.5 Land Application of Wastewater;464
11.2.6;26.6 Wetlands and Aquaculture Systems;466
11.2.7;26.7 Sludge Processing;467
11.2.8;Questions and Problems;470
11.2.9;References and Additional Reading;471
11.3;Chapter 27. Land Application of Biosolids and Animal Wastes ;472
11.3.1;27.1 Biosolids and Animal Wastes: A Historical Perspective and Current Outlook ;473
11.3.2;27.2 The Nature of Wastewater (Sewage);473
11.3.3;27.3 Wastewater (Sewage) Treatment;474
11.3.4;27.4 Methods of Land Application of Biosolids;474
11.3.5;27.5 Benefits of Land Application of Biosolids;477
11.3.6;27.6 Hazards of Land Application of Biosolids;478
11.3.7;27.7 Sources of Animal Wastes;485
11.3.8;27.8 Nonpoint Versus Point Source Pollution;486
11.3.9;27.9 Benefits of Land Application of Animal Wastes;486
11.3.10;27.10 Hazards of Land Application of Animal Wastes;487
11.3.11;27.11 Public Perceptions of Land Application;487
11.3.12;Questions and Problems;488
11.3.13;References and Additional Reading;488
11.4;Chapter 28. Drinking Water Treatment and Water Security ;489
11.4.1;28.1 Water Treatment Processes;490
11.4.2;28.2 Disinfection;492
11.4.3;28.3 Factors Affecting Disinfectants;493
11.4.4;28.4 Halogens;498
11.4.5;28.5 Disinfection By-Products;499
11.4.6;28.6 Residential Water Treatment;499
11.4.7;28.7 Water Security;503
11.4.8;28.8 Monitoring Community Water Quality;506
11.4.9;Questions and Problems;506
11.4.10;References and Additional Reading;507
12;Part 6: Emerging Issues in Pollution Science;508
12.1;Chapter 29. Genetically Engineered Crops and Microbes;510
12.1.1;29.1 Introduction to Nucleic Acids;511
12.1.2;29.2 Recombinant DNA Technology;511
12.1.3;29.3 Transfer of Nucleic Acid Sequences from One Organism to Another (Cloning) ;511
12.1.4;29.4 Chemical Synthesis, Sequencing and Amplification of DNA ;513
12.1.5;29.5 Heterologous Gene Expression in Pro- and Eukaryotes ;514
12.1.6;29.6 Genetically Engineered Plants for Agriculture;515
12.1.7;29.7 Genetically Engineered Plants for Remediation;516
12.1.8;29.8 Microbial-Assisted Remediation;517
12.1.9;29.9 Potential Problems Due to Genetically Modified Organisms;518
12.1.10;29.10 Summary;519
12.1.11;Questions and Problems;519
12.1.12;References and Additional Reading;519
12.2;Chapter 30. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Gene Transfer ;520
12.2.1;30.1 Why Are Antibiotics An Issue?;521
12.2.2;30.2 Classification and Function of Antibiotics;521
12.2.3;30.3 Development of Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance ;522
12.2.4;30.4 Transfer of Genetic Material by Horizontal Gene Transfer ;522
12.2.5;30.5 Prevalent Environments Favoring HGT;522
12.2.6;30.6 Isolation and Detection of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria ;523
12.2.7;30.7 Incidence of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Various Environments ;523
12.2.8;30.8 Gene Transfer Between Bacteria„How Prelevant Is It? ;525
12.2.9;30.9 Summary and Conclusions;526
12.2.10;Questions and Problems;526
12.2.11;References and Additional Reading;526
12.3;Chapter 31. Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disruptors ;527
12.3.1;31.1 Endocrine Disruptors and Hormones;528
12.3.2;31.2 Significance of EDCs in Water;528
12.3.3;31.3 Incidence of EDCs in Water;529
12.3.4;31.4 Fate and Transport of Estrogenic Compounds in Municipal Wastewater ;532
12.3.5;31.5 Methods for Measuring Estrogenic Activity in Water ;533
12.3.6;31.6 What are the Risk of EDCs?;535
12.3.7;Questions and Problems;536
12.3.8;References and Additional Reading;536
12.4;Chapter 32. Epilogue: Is the Future of Pollution History?;537
12.4.1;32.1 The Role of Government in Controlling Pollution;538
12.4.2;32.2 Research Priorities Necessary to Protect Human Health ;538
12.4.3;32.3 Pollution Prevention of Earth, Air, and Water;538
12.4.4;32.4 Is the Future of Pollution History?;539
12.4.5;References and Additional Reading;541
13;Index;542

Leseproben

CHAPTER 1 THE EXTENT OF GLOBAL POLLUTION I.L. Pepper, C.P. Gerba, M.L. Brusseau Pollution is ubiquitous, and can even cause beautiful sunsets. Photo courtesy Ian Pepper. 1.1 SCIENCE AND POLLUTION
Pollution is ubiquitous and takes many forms and shapes. For example, the beautiful sunsets that we may see in the evening are often due to the interaction of light and atmospheric contaminants, as illustrated above. Pollution can be defined as the accumulation and adverse affects of contaminants or pollutants on human health and welfare, and/or the environment. But in order to truly understand pollution, we must define the identity and nature of potential contaminants. Contaminants can result from waste materials produced from the activity of living organisms, especially humans. However, contamination can also occur from natural processes such as arsenic dissolution from bedrock into groundwater, or air pollution from smoke that results from natural fires. Pollutants are also ubiquitous in that they can be in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. Information Box 1.1 presents the major categories of pollutants and their predominant routes of human exposure. Clearly, many of the agents identified in Information Box 1.1 occur directly through activities such as mining or agriculture. But in addition, pollution is also produced as an indirect result of human activity. For example, fossil fuel burning increases atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and increases global warming. Other classes of pollutants can occur due to poor waste management or disposal, which can lead to the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in water. Some examples of microbial pathogens and associated diseases are shown in Table 1.1. Another example of pollution due to human activity is accidental spillage of organics that can be toxic, such as chlorinated solvents or petroleum hydrocarbons that contaminate groundwater. Some common contaminants that find their way into the environment, with the potential to adversely affect human health and welfare, are shown in Table 1.2. INFORMATION BOX 1.1 TABLE 1.1 Recently discovered microbes that have had a significant impact on human health. AGENT MODE OF TRANSMISSION DISEASE / SYMPTOMS Rotavirus Waterborne Diarrhea Legionella Waterborne Legionnaire’s disease Escherichia coli O157:H7 Foodborne
Waterborne Enterohemorrhagic fever, kidney failure Hepatitis E virus Waterborne Hepatitis Cryptosporidium Waterborne Diarrhea   Foodborne   Calicivirus Waterborne Diarrhea   Foodborne   Helicobacter pylori Foodborne Stomach ulcers   Waterborne   Cyclospora Foodborne Diarrhea   Waterborne   TABLE 1.2 Common organic and inorganic contaminants found in the environment. CHEMICAL CLASS FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE Gasoline, fuel oil Very frequent Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Common Creosote Infrequent Alcohols, ketones, esters Common Ethers Common Chlorinated organics Very frequent Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)   Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Infrequent Nitroaromatics (TNT) Common Metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn) Common Nitrate Common From Environmental Microbiology © 2000, Academic Press, San Diego, CA. In this textbook, we will discuss these major sources of pollution in a science-based context, hence the name: Environmental and Pollution Science (Information Box 1.2). INFORMATION BOX 1.2 Environmental and Pollution Science is the study of the physical, chemical, and biological processes fundamental to the transport, fate, and mitigation of contaminants that arise from human activities as well as natural processes. The focus of the text will be to identify the basic scientific processes that control the transport and fate of pollutants in the environment. We will also try to define the potential for adverse effects to human health and welfare, and the environment using a risk-based approach. Finally, we will present real world “case studies.” The diverse nature of the scientific disciplines needed to study pollution science are shown in Information Box 1.3. It is the holistic integration of these diverse and complex entities that presents the major challenge to understanding both “Environmental and Pollution Science.” INFORMATION BOX 1.3 1.2 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The environment plays a key role in the ultimate fate of pollutants. The environment consists of land, water, and the atmosphere. All sources of pollution are initially released or dumped into one of these phases of the environment. As pollutants interact with the environment, they undergo physical and chemical changes, and are ultimately incorporated into the environment. The environment thus acts as a continuum into which all waste materials are placed. The pollutants, in turn, obey the second law of thermodynamics: matter cannot be destroyed; it is merely converted from one form to another. Thus, taken together, the way in which substances are added to the environment, the rate at which these wastes are added, and the subsequent changes that occur determine the impact of the waste on the environment. It is important to recognize the concept of the environment as a continuum, because many physical, chemical, and biological processes occur not within one of these phases, such as the air alone, but rather at the interface between two phases such as the soil/water interface. The concept of the continuum relies on the premise that resources are utilized at a rate at which they can be replaced or renewed, and that wastes are added to the environment at a rate at which they can be assimilated without disturbing the environment. Historically, natural wastes were generated that could easily be broken down or transformed into beneficial, or at least benign, compounds. However, post-industrial contamination has resulted in the formation of xenobiotic waste—compounds that are foreign to natural ecosystems and that are less subject to degradation. In some cases, natural processes can actually enhance the toxicity of the pollutants. For example, organic compounds that are not themselves carcinogenic can be microbially converted into carcinogenic substances. Other compounds, even those not normally considered pollutants, can cause pollution if they are added to the environment in quantities that result in high concentrations of these substances. An excellent example here is nitrate fertilizer, which is often added to soil at high levels. Such nitrates can end up in drinking water supplies and cause methemoglobinemia (blue baby disease) in newborn infants (see Chapter 16). Some pollutants, such as microbial pathogens, are entirely natural and may be present in the environment at very low concentrations. Even so, they are still capable of causing pathogenic diseases in humans or animals. Such natural microorganisms are also classified as pollutants, and their occurrence within the environment needs to be carefully controlled. 1.3 POLLUTION AND POPULATION PRESSURES
To understand the relationship between population and pollution, let us examine a typical curve for the growth of a pure culture of bacteria in a liquid medium (Figure 1.1). Early on, the bacteria growing in the medium do not increase significantly in number, due to low population densities, which results in organisms operating as separate entities. This initial low-growth phase is known as the lag period. Next, the number of organisms increases exponentially for a finite period of time. This phase of growth is known as the exponential phase or log phase. After this exponential phase of growth, a stationary phase occurs, during which the total number of organisms remains constant as new organisms are constantly being produced while other organisms are dying....