E-Book, Englisch, 114 Seiten, Format (B × H): 178 mm x 254 mm
McNeil / Lieneman Time-Out in Child Behavior Management
1. Auflage 2023
ISBN: 978-1-61334-509-2
Verlag: Hogrefe Publishing
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark
E-Book, Englisch, 114 Seiten, Format (B × H): 178 mm x 254 mm
Reihe: Advances in Psychotherapy - Evidence-Based Practice
ISBN: 978-1-61334-509-2
Verlag: Hogrefe Publishing
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark
This book is essential reading for psychologists, therapists, students, and anyone who works with children and their families. It is a compact, comprehensive guide to understanding, administering, and teaching caregivers to implement time-out effectively for child behavior management. Readers will learn about time-out’s history and scientific research base, particularly with respect to child age, cultural groups, and presenting concerns. Practitioners will appreciate the focus on applied research highlighting the efficacy of specific time-out parameters, such as duration, location, and handling escape. Overviews of behavioral parent training programs that include time-out are also provided. The authors then share their expertise in the use of time-out in parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT), both conceptually and by using an in-depth case study. They also thoroughly examine controversial issues related to time-out, from theoretical and practical standpoints. The appendix provides the clinician with hands-on tools: step-by-step diagrams for administering time-out and managing escape, handouts for parents about issuing effective instructions, and a list of further resources.
Zielgruppe
Clinical psychologists, child psychologists, psychiatrists, psychotherapists, family practitioners, and counselors, as well as students.
Autoren/Hrsg.
Fachgebiete
Weitere Infos & Material
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Description
Time-out is short for time-out from positive reinforcement. In its most basic definition, time-out refers to “a period of time in a less reinforcing environment made contingent on a behavior” (Brantner & Doherty, 1983, p. 87). In other words, following a specific behavior, an individual is either moved to a less reinforcing environment or somehow limited in accessing reinforcement in the current environment. Time-out is typically used as a punishment procedure to discourage undesirable behavior. Although principles of time-out have been used in other arenas, for the purposes of this book we discuss time-out as it relates to child behavior management, predominantly in the United States. 1.1 History of Time-Out
Some of the earliest discussions of time-out in the literature appear in studies of animal behavior from the 1950s (Ferster, 1958; Ferster & Skinner, 1957; Skinner, 1950). This research centered on training animals, such as pigeons and chimpanzees, to peck keys or press switches in order to access reinforcement in the form of food. When time-out from reinforcement was employed – animals no longer received food for responding (e.g., pressing keys or switches) – behavioral researchers discovered that rates of responding were impacted. This literature began to establish the study of time-out as a procedure in which animals’ behavior mirrored behavior under conditions of other known forms of punishment. Most fundamentally, animals’ responding for food decreased during periods of time-out. Relatedly, animals either responded more or less frequently before and after periods of time-out depending on how the experimenters arranged the contingencies (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). Later, in the 1960s and 1970s, researchers began to generalize time-out procedures to applied settings. Children with disabilities demonstrating dangerous or destructive behavior were some of the first subjects to appear in the time-out literature. For example, Risley (1968) attempted to use time-out from social attention to decrease dangerous behavior (e.g., climbing bookshelves, hitting others) in a child diagnosed with autism. Similar time-out studies targeted self-injurious behavior, aggression, tantrums, elopement, and problems related to eating, sleeping, and toileting (Harris & Ersner-Hershfield, 1978). Subjects were often individuals with cognitive deficits, neurodevelopmental disabilities, or serious mental health diagnoses, especially those who were institutionalized. Time-out was employed as a less aversive alternative to |2|popular methods of severe behavior management of the day, including corporal punishment, pharmacotherapy, and electric shock. During this same period, time-out became broadly appealing as a practice for typically developing children. Behavioral learning theorists such as Gerald Patterson and Arthur Staats have been credited with introducing the concept of time-out as a component of childrearing (Patterson & White, 1969; Staats, 1971). However, the practice may have predated formal naming and study. Constance Hanf was another influential figure in the popularization of time-out as a parenting technique. Hanf developed a treatment program for improving parent–child interactions, which included time-out as a component of discipline (Hanf, 1969). Hanf’s two-stage model went on to serve as a blueprint for many of the most evidence-based behavioral parent training programs in use today, including parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT; McNeil & Hembree-Kigin, 2010), Helping the Noncompliant Child (McMahon & Forehand, 2003), The Incredible Years (Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2017), Parent Management Training – Oregon (Dishion et al., 2016), and Triple P – Positive Parenting Program (Reitman & McMahon, 2013; Sanders, 1999). These programs, discussed further in Chapter 5, continue to support the effectiveness of time-out as a disciplinary strategy for children with disruptive behavior problems. Along the same vein, various forms of time-out for child behavior management found their way into classroom settings in the 1970s. It was around this time that individual states began banning corporal punishment in schools (Forehand & McKinney, 1993). Student behavior such as tantrums, physical aggression, out-of-seat behavior, and general disruptiveness served as the first targets of classroom time-outs in the literature (Foxx & Shapiro, 1978; Porterfield et al., 1976). Researchers pioneered creative variants of time-out principles in public schools, daycare centers, camps, and special education settings for children aged 1–18 years. Before the advent of time-out as a common disciplinary measure for children, other disciplinary methods like corporal punishment, defined as the intentional infliction of physical pain contingent upon target behavior, were more popular than they are today. Arthur Staats cited concerns with damaging the parent–child relationship through spanking as his motivation for creating time-out, a new technique he used with his own children in the 1960s (Vander Schaaff, 2019). In addition, the popularization of time-out was overlaid on historical changes in mainstream American parenting as outlined by Forehand and McKinney (1993): (1) Disciplinary standards became less strict and punishments less severe; (2) Parents shifted away from reliance on religious guidance and toward guidance from professionals (e.g., psychologists); (3) Focus on ethical and legal standards aimed at improving children’s rights increased; and (4) Fathers became more involved in the social development of children. Changes in discipline practices have occurred worldwide as well. Corporal punishment of children is currently unlawful in more than 75 countries around the world, areas encompassing 77% of the world’s child population (Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2020a). In contrast, corporal punishment by parents remains legal in the United States with at least 15 states still also allowing corporal punishment in public schools (|3|Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2020b). Still, the popularity and use of corporal punishment across demographics is declining. In one large longitudinal study, researchers found that American mothers across socioeconomic groups reported significant decreases in their use of spanking and significant increases in their use of time-out as disciplinary strategies from 1988 to 2011 (Ryan et al., 2016). A key development during this time period was a policy statement from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP, 1998). Physical discipline has been associated with many negative outcomes such as poorer caregiver–child relationships, mental health problems, antisocial behavior, future abuse perpetration and victimization (Kazdin & Benjet, 2003). In turn, time-out has received strong empirical support (Kaminski et al., 2008). Based on this growing body of research, the AAP released their official position as discouraging corporal punishment and recommending nonphysical discipline, specifically naming time-out. More evidence behind the efficacy of time-out in comparison to other forms of discipline can be found in Chapter 2. From its origins in animal research 70 years ago, to its place as one of the most popular parenting strategies in use today, time-out has come a long way. As it originates from the field of behavior analysis, most time-out research and implementation has been conducted by behavior analysts or behavioral psychologists. As such, in the next section, we briefly define the behavioral underpinnings of time-out. 1.2 Defining Time-Out: Extinction or Punishment?
Researchers and behavioral learning theorists have disagreed as to whether time-out from positive reinforcement constitutes extinction, punishment, or both (Brantner & Doherty, 1983). Extinction, defined as the removal of a specific behavior’s reinforcer, results in the decrease of a target behavior (Skinner, 1953). For instance, imagine a scenario in which a child’s hitting behavior is maintained by escape. Each time a teacher assigns academic work, a student hits her and is sent to the principal’s office, escaping the task. To implement extinction, the teacher would discontinue sending the child to the office (the reinforcer) immediately following the hitting behavior, insisting that the child complete the...
