Likens River Ecosystem Ecology

A Global Perspective
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-0-12-381999-4
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 424 Seiten

A derivative of the Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, River Ecosystem Ecology reviews the function of rivers and streams as ecosystems as well as the varied activities and interactions that occur among their abiotic and biotic components. Because the articles are drawn from an encyclopedia, the articles are easily accessible to interested members of the public, such as conservationists and environmental decision makers. - Includes an up-to-date summary of global aquatic ecosystems and issues - Covers current environmental problems and management solutions - Features full-color figures and tables to support the text and aid in understanding

Autoren/Hrsg.

Likens, Gene E.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;River Ecosystem Ecology: A Global Perspective;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Editor;6
5;Contributors;8
6;Contents;10
7;Introduction to River Ecosystem Ecology: A Global Perspective;12
7.1;References;12
8;Physical and Chemical Processes Influencing Rivers;14
8.1;Physical Properties of Water;14
8.1.1;Introduction;14
8.1.2;Density;14
8.1.3;Heat Capacity/Specific Heat;16
8.1.4;Heat of Fusion/Melting;17
8.1.5;Heat of Vaporization/Condensation;17
8.1.6;Isotopes;18
8.1.7;Sublimation;18
8.1.8;Surface Tension and Cohesiveness;18
8.1.9;Viscosity;19
8.1.10;Colligative Properties;19
8.1.11;Further Reading;20
8.2;Chemical Properties of Water;21
8.2.1;Introduction;21
8.2.2;The Structure of Water;21
8.2.3;Solvation by Water;24
8.2.4;The Reactivity of Water;25
8.2.5;Trends and Patterns in Limnology;26
8.2.5.1;Dissolved Gases;26
8.2.5.2;Major Ions;27
8.2.5.3;Nutrients;27
8.2.6;Conclusion;28
8.2.7;Further Reading;28
8.2.8;Relevant Websites;28
8.3;Hydrological Cycle and Water Budgets;29
8.3.1;Introduction;29
8.3.2;Hydrological Cycle;29
8.3.2.1;Hydrological Cycle: Lithospheric Components;29
8.3.2.1.1;Surface water;29
8.3.2.1.2;Soil water;31
8.3.2.1.3;Groundwater;31
8.3.3;Nutrient Cycling and Energy Balance;31
8.3.4;Summary;32
8.3.5;Water Budgets;32
8.3.5.1;Framework;32
8.3.5.2;Assessment of Components;33
8.3.5.2.1;Evapotranspiration;33
8.3.5.2.2;Soil-water storage;33
8.3.5.2.3;Groundwater storage;34
8.3.5.2.4;Groundwater runoff;34
8.3.5.3;Two Examples;34
8.3.5.3.1;Global water balance;34
8.3.5.3.2;California;34
8.3.6;Epilogue;35
8.3.7;Further Reading;35
8.4;Hydrology: Streams;36
8.4.1;Introduction;36
8.4.2;Spatial Organization of Streams in Drainage Networks;36
8.4.3;Sources of Flow in Streams;37
8.4.4;Movement of Water into Stream Channels;38
8.4.5;Movement of Sediment into Stream Channels;40
8.4.6;Characteristics of Flow in Streams;41
8.4.7;Glossary;43
8.4.8;Further Reading;44
8.4.9;Relevant Websites;44
8.5;Hydrology: Rivers;45
8.5.1;What is a River?;45
8.5.2;Hydrology and Geomorphology;45
8.5.2.1;Water Sources and Discharge;45
8.5.2.2;Flooding;46
8.5.2.3;Water Movement;47
8.5.2.4;Geomorphology;48
8.5.2.5;Water Regulation;49
8.5.3;Water Quality;50
8.5.3.1;Particulate Matter;50
8.5.3.2;Dissolved Substances;50
8.5.3.3;Nutrients;51
8.5.3.4;Dissolved Gases;51
8.5.3.5;Pollutants;52
8.5.4;Biology of Rivers;52
8.5.4.1;Primary Producers;52
8.5.4.2;Invertebrates;53
8.5.4.3;Fishes;54
8.5.4.4;River Food Webs;54
8.5.5;Global Biogeochemical Cycling;55
8.5.6;Glossary;56
8.5.7;Further Reading;56
8.6;Geomorphology of Streams and Rivers;57
8.6.1;Watersheds and River Networks;57
8.6.2;River Profile;57
8.6.3;Particulate Material Transport in River Channels;57
8.6.3.1;Hydraulics of River Flow and Bankfull Discharge;57
8.6.3.2;Bankfull Discharge;58
8.6.3.3;Suspended Load and Bedload Transport;58
8.6.4;Channel Morphology and Channel Adaptations;59
8.6.4.1;Channel Morphology;59
8.6.5;Discrimination between Geomorphic Patterns: Succession of Patterns along the River Continuum;62
8.6.6;Channel Adjustments and Channel Metamorphosis;62
8.6.7;Bedrock Channels;64
8.6.8;Further Reading;65
8.7;Currents in Rivers;66
8.7.1;Introduction;66
8.7.2;Controlling Factors and Classifications of Currents;66
8.7.3;Currents in Fluvial Channels;67
8.7.4;Secondary Currents;68
8.7.5;Structure of Currents at River Confluences;69
8.7.6;Currents at Engineering Structures;70
8.7.7;Navigation-Induced Currents;71
8.7.8;Nomenclature;72
8.7.9;Further Reading;73
8.7.10;Relevant Websites;73
8.8;Hydrodynamical Modeling;74
8.8.1;Introduction;74
8.8.2;Dimensionality and Capabilities;74
8.8.3;Boundary and Initial Conditions;76
8.8.4;Calibration;78
8.8.5;Hydrostatic Approximation;78
8.8.6;Model Grid;78
8.8.6.1;Overview;78
8.8.6.2;Grid Size and Convergence;81
8.8.6.3;Horizontal Grid Systems;81
8.8.6.4;Vertical Grid Systems;83
8.8.7;Time Step;84
8.8.8;Numerical Methods;84
8.8.9;Order of Accuracy;85
8.8.10;Model Errors;85
8.8.11;Modeling Turbulence and Mixing;85
8.8.12;Similarities and Differences between Lake and River Modeling;86
8.8.13;Summary and Future Directions;86
8.8.14;Further Reading;88
8.9;Floods;89
8.9.1;Definition of Flood;89
8.9.2;Causes and Effects of Floods;89
8.9.3;Flood Costs and Mitigation;91
8.9.4;Further Reading;92
9;Ecology of Flowing Waters;94
9.1;Streams and Rivers as Ecosystems;94
9.1.1;Stream Ecosystem Definition;94
9.1.2;Stream versus Lake Ecosystems;95
9.1.3;Ecosystem Boundaries and the Structural Components of Streams;96
9.1.4;Ecosystem Metabolism: Energy Flow;97
9.1.5;Longitudinal Patterns;99
9.1.6;Ecosystem Metabolism: Biogeochemistry;99
9.1.7;Temporal Change;100
9.1.8;Conceptual Horizons;100
9.1.9;Glossary;101
9.1.10;Further Reading;101
9.2;Algae of River Ecosystems;102
9.2.1;Introduction;102
9.2.2;Factors Affecting Algae in Rivers;102
9.2.3;Local Abiotic Factors;103
9.2.3.1;Resources;103
9.2.3.2;Stressors;105
9.2.4;Local Biotic Factors;106
9.2.5;Habitat-Scale Factors;107
9.2.6;Reach to Regional Scale Factors;108
9.2.7;Summary;109
9.2.8;Further Reading;110
9.3;Benthic Invertebrate Fauna, Small Streams;111
9.3.1;Introduction;111
9.3.2;Diversity of Benthic Invertebrates in Small Streams;111
9.3.3;Quantitative Measurements of Benthic Invertebrates in Headwater Streams;112
9.3.4;Comparison of Secondary Productivity Measurements from Small Streams;112
9.3.5;Factors that Influence Invertebrates in Small Streams;115
9.3.6;Ecological Roles of Invertebrates in Small Streams;118
9.3.7;Anthropogenic and Natural Disturbances to Invertebrate Productivity in Small Streams;122
9.3.7.1;Invasive Species;122
9.3.7.2;Agriculture;122
9.3.7.3;Urbanization and Roads;122
9.3.7.4;Forestry Practices;126
9.3.7.5;Mining;126
9.3.7.6;Recreational Activities;126
9.3.7.7;Global Climate Change;126
9.3.7.8;Wildfire;127
9.3.8;Summary and Knowledge Gaps;127
9.3.9;Further Reading;127
9.3.10;Relevant Websites;128
9.4;Benthic Invertebrate Fauna, River and Floodplain Ecosystems;129
9.4.1;Introduction;129
9.4.2;Channel Habitats;129
9.4.2.1;Stable Substrates;129
9.4.2.2;Unstable Substrates;131
9.4.3;Floodplain Habitats;132
9.4.3.1;Hydrology;133
9.4.3.2;Hydrology and Vertebrate Predators;135
9.4.3.3;Vegetation;135
9.4.4;Threats to River-Floodplain Invertebrates;137
9.4.5;Further Reading;138
9.4.6;Relevant Websites;138
9.5;Benthic Invertebrate Fauna, Tropical Stream Ecosystems;139
9.5.1;Introduction;139
9.5.2;Stream Invertebrates;139
9.5.2.1;Noninsect Macrofauna;139
9.5.2.1.1;Porifera;139
9.5.2.1.2;Cnidaria;139
9.5.2.1.3;Polyzoa (Bryozoa);140
9.5.2.1.4;Platyhelminthes;140
9.5.2.1.5;Nemertea;141
9.5.2.1.6;Nematomorpha;141
9.5.2.1.7;Nematoda;141
9.5.2.1.8;Annelida;141
9.5.2.1.9;Mollusca;143
9.5.2.1.10;Arthropoda;148
9.5.2.2;Insect Communities;150
9.5.3;Glossary;153
9.5.4;Further Reading;153
9.5.5;Relevant Websites;154
9.6;Benthic Invertebrate Fauna;155
9.6.1;Introduction;155
9.6.2;The Physical and Chemical Context;155
9.6.3;The Biotic Context;160
9.6.3.1;Types and Classification of Benthic Invertebrates;160
9.6.3.2;Ecological Role of Benthic Invertebrates;164
9.6.3.3;Secondary Production and Dispersal;165
9.6.3.4;Major Paradigms and Concepts;166
9.6.4;Use of Benthic Invertebrates in Applied Freshwater Biology;168
9.6.5;Summary;169
9.6.6;Glossary;169
9.6.7;Further Reading;170
9.7;Biological Interactions in River Ecosystems;171
9.7.1;Introduction;171
9.7.2;Energy Resources in River Ecosystems;171
9.7.3;Food Web Dynamics;172
9.7.4;Structure and Function of Lotic Ecosystems;175
9.7.4.1;The River Continuum Concept: A Model;175
9.7.4.2;Other Ecosystem Concepts;177
9.7.5;Glossary;178
9.7.6;Further Reading;178
9.8;Regulators of Biotic Processes in Stream and River Ecosystems;179
9.8.1;Introduction: Downstream Changes and Dynamics in River Environments;179
9.8.2;Changes in Communities over Time: Disturbance and Succession;179
9.8.3;Changes in Interactions across Space: Depth Zonation;181
9.8.4;Changes in Interactions across Space: Position in the Drainage Network;182
9.8.5;Changes in Biomass Distribution and Elemental Fluxes Mediated by Interactions and Movements of River Organisms;183
9.8.6;Forecasting Ecological Change in River Networks;184
9.8.7;Glossary;185
9.8.8;Further Reading;185
9.9;Ecology and Role of Headwater Streams;186
9.9.1;Introduction;186
9.9.2;Streams in the Landscape;186
9.9.2.1;Linkages to the Watershed;186
9.9.2.2;Formation and Importance of Drainage Networks;186
9.9.2.3;Geomorphology;187
9.9.3;Streams as Habitat;188
9.9.3.1;Physical Challenges to Biota;188
9.9.3.2;Connectivity as an Organizing Feature;189
9.9.4;Stream Biogeochemistry;189
9.9.4.1;Integrators of Watershed Processes;189
9.9.4.2;Pipes, Vents or Ecosystems?;190
9.9.5;Streams as Indicators of Ecosystem Health;192
9.9.5.1;Geomorphology;192
9.9.5.2;Nutrients;192
9.9.5.3;Biota;193
9.9.6;Further Reading;193
9.10;Riparian Zones;195
9.10.1;Introduction;195
9.10.2;Riparian Zones as Focal Points for Biodiversity;195
9.10.3;Riparian Zones as Buffers against Nutrient Pollution from Upland Runoff;198
9.10.4;Riparian Zones as Buffers against High In- Stream Nutrient Levels;199
9.10.5;Riparian Zones as Buffers against Suspended Sediments;199
9.10.6;Riparian Zones as Sources of Energy for Adjoining Aquatic Systems;200
9.10.7;Large Animal Influences on Riparian Zones;201
9.10.8;Pacific Salmon Influences on Riparian Zones;201
9.10.9;Conclusions;201
9.10.10;Further Reading;202
9.11;Flood Plains;203
9.11.1;Examples of Floodplain Environments;203
9.11.2;Geomorphological Processes on Flood Plains;203
9.11.3;Hydrology;205
9.11.4;Floodplain Lakes;208
9.11.5;Remote Sensing of Flood Plains;209
9.11.6;Functions of Flood plains;209
9.11.7;Human Modification of Floodplain Hydrology;210
9.11.8;Further Reading;210
9.12;Coarse Woody Debris in Lakes and Streams;212
9.12.1;Introduction;212
9.12.2;Sources of Coarse Woody Debris to Aquatic Ecosystems;212
9.12.3;Loss of Coarse Woody Debris from Aquatic Systems;213
9.12.4;Physical and Hydraulic Role of Coarse Woody Debris;214
9.12.5;Nutrient Properties and Primary Production Associated with Coarse Woody Debris;215
9.12.6;Coarse Woody Debris and Secondary Production;216
9.12.7;Coarse Woody Debris and Fishes;216
9.12.8;Coarse Woody Debris and Other Organisms;217
9.12.9;Riparian Forest/Coarse Woody Debris/Aquatic Food Web Models;218
9.12.10;Ecosystem-Scale Coarse Woody Debris Experiments;218
9.12.11;Temporal Dynamics and Coarse Woody Debris Restoration;219
9.12.12;Further Reading;220
9.12.13;Relevant Websites;220
9.13;Wetlands of Large Rivers: Flood Plains;221
9.13.1;Wetlands on Flood Plains;221
9.13.2;Images and Photos of Floodplain Environments;221
9.13.3;Distribution and Extent;221
9.13.4;Regimes of Flooding and Drying;222
9.13.5;Primary and Secondary Production;222
9.13.6;Biodiversity;223
9.13.7;Biotic Adaptations;223
9.13.8;Human Impacts on Floodplain Wetlands;223
9.13.9;Further Reading;224
9.14;Models of Ecological Processes in Riverine Ecosystems;225
9.14.1;Caveat Emptor;225
9.14.2;Four Dimensions and Hierarchy Theory;225
9.14.2.1;Hierarchy Theory;225
9.14.3;Longitudinal Perspectives;225
9.14.3.1;River Continuum Concept;226
9.14.3.2;Serial Discontinuity Concept;227
9.14.3.3;Network Dynamics Hypothesis;227
9.14.3.4;Hydrogeomorphic Patches and the Riverine Ecosystem Synthesis;227
9.14.4;MacroHabitat Structure;229
9.14.4.1;Natural Flow Regime;229
9.14.5;Food Webs;229
9.14.5.1;Flood Pulse Concept;229
9.14.5.2;Riverine Productivity Model;230
9.14.5.3;Food Web Complexity and Food Chain Length;230
9.14.6;Regulation of Community Structure;230
9.14.6.1;Equilibrial (Deterministic) vs Non-Equilbrial (Stochastic) States;230
9.14.6.2;Competition and Predation Models;230
9.14.6.3;Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis;231
9.14.6.4;Hierarchical Patch Dynamics;231
9.14.7;Functional Processes in Riverine Ecosystems;231
9.14.8;Glossary;231
9.14.9;Further Reading;232
10;Human Impacts on Streams and Rivers;234
10.1;Deforestation and Nutrient Loading to Fresh Waters;234
10.1.1;Introduction;234
10.1.2;Factors Controlling Nutrient Loading in Fresh Waters;234
10.1.2.1;Dissolved Nutrients;234
10.1.2.2;Nutrients in Particulate Form;234
10.1.3;Effects of Deforestation on the Factors Controlling Freshwater Nutrient Loads;240
10.1.3.1;Dissolved Nutrients;240
10.1.3.1.1;Effects on geological weathering;240
10.1.3.1.2;Effects on atmospheric precipitation/climate;240
10.1.3.1.2.1;Effects on precipitation chemistry and acidity;240
10.1.3.1.2.2;Effects on hydrology;240
10.1.3.1.2.3;Effects on temperature;241
10.1.3.1.3;Effects on terrestrial biological processes;241
10.1.3.1.3.1;Chemical uptake;241
10.1.3.1.3.2;Chemical transformations;241
10.1.3.1.3.3;Production of soluble chemicals;242
10.1.3.1.4;Effects on physical-chemical reactions in the soil;242
10.1.3.1.5;Effects on processes within aquatic ecosystems;243
10.1.3.1.6;Other factors contributing to the variable effects of deforestation on nutrient loading;243
10.1.4;Nutrients in Particulate Form;245
10.1.4.1;Effects on Watershed Topography, Soil Erodibility, Precipitation Characteristics, and Watershed Susceptibility to Mass Wasting;245
10.1.4.2;Effects on Stream-Channel Characteristics;245
10.1.4.3;Effects on Proximity of Vegetation to Surface Water;245
10.1.4.4;Effects on Extent of Roading;246
10.1.5;Conclusions;248
10.1.5.1;Knowledge Gaps;248
10.1.5.2;General Effects of Deforestation on Freshwater Nutrient Loading;249
10.1.6;Further Reading;249
10.1.7;Relevant Websites;249
10.2;Agriculture;250
10.2.1;Introduction;250
10.2.2;Nutrient Loss and Fertilization Practices;250
10.2.3;Nutrients and Sediments in Agricultural Landscapes;252
10.2.4;Coastal Waters and Aquaculture;255
10.2.5;Changes in Biota;256
10.2.6;Pesticides;256
10.2.7;Irrigation;257
10.2.8;Remediation Measures;257
10.2.9;Further Reading;258
10.3;Climate and Rivers;259
10.3.1;Introduction;259
10.3.2;Climate;259
10.3.3;Climate and Streamflow;260
10.3.3.1;Mean Annual Flow;260
10.3.3.2;Interannual Variability;261
10.3.4;Seasonal Regimes;262
10.3.4.1;Floods;264
10.3.4.2;Low Flows;268
10.3.5;River Channels and Climate;268
10.3.6;River Regulation, Environment, and Climate;269
10.3.7;Conclusions;270
10.3.8;Further Reading;271
10.4;Urban Aquatic Ecosystems;272
10.4.1;Introduction;272
10.4.2;Rivers and Streams;272
10.4.2.1;Geomorphology;272
10.4.2.2;Hydrology;274
10.4.2.3;Chemistry;275
10.4.2.4;Biology;276
10.4.2.5;Ecosystem Processes;276
10.4.3;Lakes and Ponds;278
10.4.4;Wetlands;279
10.4.5;Ecosystem Services;279
10.4.6;Conclusions;280
10.4.6.1;Knowledge Gaps;280
10.4.7;Glossary;281
10.4.8;Further Reading;281
10.4.9;Relevant Websites;282
10.5;Restoration Ecology of Rivers;283
10.5.1;Introduction;283
10.5.2;Present State of the World's Rivers;283
10.5.2.1;Dams;283
10.5.2.2;Water Abstraction;283
10.5.2.3;Agriculture;284
10.5.2.4;Urbanization;284
10.5.3;The Recommendations of River Restoration Ecology;285
10.5.3.1;Restoration without Constraints;285
10.5.3.2;Restoration with Constraints;285
10.5.4;The River Restoration Process;285
10.5.4.1;The Planning Stage;285
10.5.4.2;The Implementation Stage;288
10.5.4.3;The Monitoring Stage;288
10.5.5;Recommendations for the Future;290
10.5.6;Glossary;291
10.5.7;Further Reading;291
10.5.8;Relevant Websites;292
10.6;Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems;293
10.6.1;Introduction;293
10.6.2;Status of Freshwater Biodiversity;293
10.6.3;Major Threats;294
10.6.4;Conservation Challenges;297
10.6.5;Conservation Strategies;297
10.6.5.1;Integrated Water Resources Management and Integrated River Basin Management;298
10.6.5.2;Environmental Flows;299
10.6.5.3;Dams: Operation, Design, Removal;299
10.6.5.4;Protected Areas;300
10.6.5.5;Retaining Wild or Free-Flowing Rivers;300
10.6.5.6;Restoration;300
10.6.5.7;Convention Programs of Work;301
10.6.6;Conclusions;301
10.6.7;Further Reading;301
10.6.8;Relevant Websites;301
11;Rivers of the World;304
11.1;Africa;304
11.1.1;General Features of the African Continent;304
11.1.1.1;Relief;304
11.1.1.2;Lithology;304
11.1.1.3;Climate;307
11.1.2;River Network Organisation and River Regimes;307
11.1.2.1;Exorheism, Endorheism, and Arheism are Continuously Changing;307
11.1.2.2;River Regimes in Africa;307
11.1.3;Suspended Load;310
11.1.4;Riverine Chemistry;310
11.1.5;Human Impacts and Uncertain Future of African Rivers;312
11.1.5.1;Damming;312
11.1.5.2;Pollution;312
11.1.5.3;Decreasing River Flows;313
11.1.5.4;Perspectives;313
11.1.6;Further Reading;313
11.1.7;Relevant Website;314
11.2;Asia - Eastern Asia;315
11.2.1;Introduction;315
11.2.2;General Features;315
11.2.3;Water Discharge;315
11.2.4;Total Suspended Sediment (TSS);319
11.2.5;Chemical Composition of TDS;321
11.2.5.1;Major Solute Composition of TDS;321
11.2.5.2;Long-Term Trend in Major Solute Concentrations;321
11.2.5.2.1;Acidification in the Changjiang;321
11.2.5.2.2;Salinization in the Huanghe;323
11.2.5.2.3;Alkalinization in the Songhuajiang;323
11.2.5.3;Seaward TDS Flux;323
11.2.6;Elemental Composition of TSS;323
11.2.7;Human Impacts;325
11.2.8;Concluding Remarks;326
11.2.9;Further Reading;326
11.3;Asia - Monsoon Asia;327
11.3.1;General Features of South and Southeast Asian Drainages;327
11.3.2;Drainage Network and River Discharge Regimes;327
11.3.3;Suspended Loads and Water Chemistry;331
11.3.4;Human Effects on South Asian Rivers;331
11.3.5;Perspectives;333
11.3.6;Glossary;333
11.3.7;Further Reading;334
11.3.8;Relevant Website;334
11.4;Asia - Northern Asia and Central Asia Endorheic Rivers;335
11.4.1;Arctic and Pacific Rivers;335
11.4.1.1;Present River Network Organization and Its Past Evolution;335
11.4.1.2;Temperature and River Discharge Regimes;335
11.4.1.3;Relief, Sediment Transport and Suspended Solids;336
11.4.1.4;Catchment Lithology and River Chemistry;340
11.4.1.5;Nutrients and Organic Carbon;340
11.4.1.6;Human Impacts;340
11.4.2;Endorheic Rivers of Central Asia;342
11.4.2.1;Past and Present River Network Organization;342
11.4.2.2;Hydrology and Climate Conditions;342
11.4.2.3;Relief, Sediment Supply and Suspended Solids;343
11.4.2.4;Lithology and Water Chemistry;343
11.4.2.5;Human Impacts and Salinization;343
11.4.3;Further Reading;344
11.4.4;Relevant Websites;344
11.5;Australia (and Papua, New Guinea);345
11.5.1;Hydrological Network, Past and Present;345
11.5.2;Hydroclimates and Hydrological Regimes;345
11.5.3;Sediment Transport;346
11.5.4;Ion Chemistry;349
11.5.5;Human Impacts: Mining and Salinization;351
11.5.6;Further Reading;351
11.5.7;Relevant Websites;352
11.6;European Rivers*;353
11.6.1;Introduction;353
11.6.2;Biogeographic Setting;353
11.6.3;Cultural and Socioeconomic Setting;353
11.6.4;Hydrogeomorphic and Human Legacies;353
11.6.4.1;Last Glacial Maximum and Holocene Distribution of River Networks;353
11.6.4.2;Early and Recent Human Impacts of European Rivers;355
11.6.5;Water Availability, Runoff, and Water Stress;355
11.6.6;Riverine Flood Plains;356
11.6.7;River Deltas;358
11.6.8;Water Quality;359
11.6.9;Freshwater Biodiversity;361
11.6.10;The European Water Framework Directive;362
11.6.11;Knowledge Gaps;362
11.6.12;Further Reading;364
11.6.13;Relevant Websites;364
11.7;South America;365
11.7.1;Introduction and Overview;365
11.7.2;Caribbean and North Atlantic Basins;365
11.7.2.1;Geomorphology and Hydrology;365
11.7.2.2;Biology and Ecology;366
11.7.2.3;Management Issues;367
11.7.3;Amazon Basin;369
11.7.3.1;Geomorphology and Hydrology;370
11.7.3.2;Biology and Ecology;371
11.7.3.3;Management Issues;371
11.7.4;South Atlantic Basins;371
11.7.4.1;Geomorphology and Hydrology;372
11.7.4.2;Biology and Ecology;372
11.7.4.3;Management Issues;372
11.7.5;Pacific Basins;373
11.7.5.1;Geomorphology and Hydrology;373
11.7.5.2;Biology and Ecology;373
11.7.5.3;Management Issues;373
11.7.6;Endorheic Basins;373
11.7.7;Further Reading;374
11.8;Streams and Rivers of North America: Overview, Eastern and Central Basins;375
11.8.1;Introduction and Overview;375
11.8.2;Atlantic Basins of the United States and Canada;376
11.8.2.1;Landscape and Climate;376
11.8.2.2;Geomorphology and Hydrology;378
11.8.2.3;Biology and Ecology;379
11.8.3;Mississippi River Basins;379
11.8.3.1;Landscape and Climate;380
11.8.3.2;Geomorphology and Hydrology;380
11.8.3.3;Biology and Ecology;381
11.8.4;U.S. Gulf of Mexico Basins, Exclusive of Mississippi River;382
11.8.4.1;Landscape and Climate;382
11.8.4.2;Geomorphology and Hydrology;382
11.8.4.3;Biology and Ecology;383
11.8.5;Summary of Human Impacts;383
11.8.6;Glossary;384
11.8.7;Further Reading;385
11.8.8;Relevant Websites;385
11.9;Streams and Rivers of North America: Western, Northern and Mexican Basins;386
11.9.1;Introduction;386
11.9.2;Arid Southwestern Basins of the United States (Colorado River, Great Basin);386
11.9.2.1;Landscape and Climate;386
11.9.2.2;Geomorphology and Hydrology;387
11.9.2.3;Biology and Ecology;387
11.9.3;Mexican Basins Exclusive of Rio Grande;389
11.9.3.1;Landscape and Climate;389
11.9.3.2;Geomorphology and Hydrology;390
11.9.3.3;Biology and Ecology;390
11.9.4;Pacific Basins of the United States and Canada;391
11.9.4.1;Landscape and Climate;391
11.9.4.2;Geomorphology and Hydrology;392
11.9.4.3;Biology and Ecology;393
11.9.5;Arctic and Subarctic basins;394
11.9.5.1;Landscape and Climate;394
11.9.5.2;Geomorphology and Hydrology;395
11.9.5.3;Biology and Ecology;396
11.9.6;Summary of Human Impacts;396
11.9.7;Glossary;397
11.9.8;Further Reading;397
11.9.9;Relevant Websites;397
12;Subject Index;398