Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook, Volume 1

1. Auflage 2018
ISBN: 978-1-118-23369-6
Verlag: Wiley

Buch, Englisch, 654 Seiten, Format (B × H): 221 mm x 286 mm, Gewicht: 1876 g

There is a renaissance that is occurring in chemical and process engineering, and it is crucial for today's scientists, engineers, technicians, and operators to stay current. With so many changes over the last few decades in equipment and processes, petroleum refining is almost a living document, constantly needing updating. With no new refineries being built, companies are spending their capital re-tooling and adding on to existing plants. Refineries are like small cities, today, as they grow bigger and bigger and more and more complex. A huge percentage of a refinery can be changed, literally, from year to year, to account for the type of crude being refined or to integrate new equipment or processes.

This book is the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world's foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Coker, A Kayode

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Preface xix

Acknowledgments xxi

About the Author xxiii

1 Introduction 1

References 6

2 Composition of Crude Oils and Petroleum Products 7

2.1 Hydrocarbons 8

2.1.1 Alkynes Series 12

2.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 14

2.3 Heteroatomic Organic Compounds 15

2.3.1 Non-Hydrocarbons 15

2.3.2 Sulfur Compounds 18

2.4 Thiols 18

2.5 Oxygen Compounds 20

2.6 Nitrogen Compounds 22

2.7 Resins and Asphaltenes 23

2.8 Salts 24

2.9 Carbon Dioxide 24

2.10 Metallic Compounds 24

2.11 Products Composition 25

2.11.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3 and C4) 26

2.11.2 Gasoline (C5 to C11) 26

2.11.3 Condensate (C4, C5 and C6 >) 27

2.11.4 Gas Fuel Oils (C12 to C19) 27

2.11.5 Kerosene 27

2.11.6 Diesel Fuel 28

2.11.7 Fuel Oils # 4, 5, and 6 28

2.11.8 Residual Fuel Oil 28

2.11.9 Natural Gas 29

References 30

3 Characterization of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 31

3.1 Introduction 31

3.1.1 Crude Oil Properties 32

3.1.2 Gravity, API 32

3.1.3 Boiling Point Range 33

3.1.4 Characterization Factor 33

3.1.5 The Universal Oil Product Characterization factor, KUOP 34

3.1.6 Carbon Residue, wt% 34

3.1.7 Nitrogen Content, wt% 36

3.1.8 Sulfur Content, wt% 36

3.1.9 Total Acid Number (TAN) 36

3.1.10 Salt Content, pounds/1000 barrels 36

3.1.11 Metals, parts/million (ppm) by weight 36

3.1.12 Pour Point (oF or °C) 36

3.2 Crude Oil Assay Data 37

3.2.1 Whole crude oil average properties 37

3.2.2 Fractional properties 37

3.3 Crude Cutting Analysis 37

3.4 Crude Oil Blending 37

3.5 Laboratory Testing of Crude Oils 46

3.5.1 True Boiling Point (TBP) Curve 46

3.5.2 ASTM D86 Distillation 46

3.5.3 Boiling Points 47

3.5.4 Conversion Between ASTM and TBP Distillation 49

3.5.5 Petroleum Pseudo-Components 54

3.5.6 Pseudo-Component Normal Boiling Points 55

3.5.7 ASTM D1160 Distillation 55

3.5.8 Determination of ASTM IBP, 10%, 20–90% Points of Blend 55

3.5.9 ASTM 10–90% Points 56

3.5.10 Initial Boiling Point Determination 56

3.5.11 ASTM End Point of Blend 56

3.5.12 Flash Point 56

3.5.13 Flash Point, °F, as a Function of Average Boiling Point 57

3.5.14 Smoke Point of Kerosenes 57

3.5.15 Luminometer Number 57

3.5.16 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) 57

3.5.17 Vapor Pressure of Narrow Hydrocarbon Cuts 58

3.6 Octanes 58

3.7 Cetanes 58

3.7.1 Cetane Index 59

3.8 Diesel Index 59

3.9 Determination of the Lower Heating Value of Petroleum Fractions 59

3.10 Aniline Point Blending 60

3.11 Correlation Index (CI) 60

3.12 Chromatographically Simulated Distillations 61
References 62
4 Thermodynamic Properties of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 63

4.1 K-Factor Hydrocarbon Equilibrium Charts 64

4.2 Non-Ideal Systems 72

4.3 Vapor Pressure 74

4.3.1 Vapor Pressure Determination using the Clausius-Clapeyron and the Antoine Equations 75

4.4 Viscosity 80

4.4.1 Conversion to Saybolt Universal Viscosity 80

4.4.2 Conversion to Saybolt Furol Viscosity 82

4.4.3 Equivalents of Kinematic (cSt), Saybolt Universal (SUS), and Dynamic viscosity 82

4.4.4 Viscosity of Liquid Hydrocarbons 83

4.4.5 Gas Viscosity 84

4.5 Refractive Index 87

4.6 Liquid Density 89

4.6.1 Gas Density 89

4.7 Molecular Weight 90

4.8 Molecular Type Composition 90

4.9 Critical Temperature, Tc 96

4.10 Critical Pressure, Pc 97

4.11 Pseudo-Critical Constants and Acentric Factors 98

4.12 Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions 99

4.13 Compressibility Z Factor of Natural Gases 100

4.14 Simulation Thermodynamic Software Programs 105

References 110

5 Process Descriptions of Refinery Processes 111

5.1 Introduction 111

5.2 Refinery and Distillation Processes 115

5.3 Process Description of the Crude Distillation Unit 120

5.3.1 Crude Oil Desalting 121

5.3.2 Types of Salts in Crude Oil 122

5.3.3 Desalting Process 122

5.3.4 Pumparound Heat Removal 127

5.3.5 Tower Pressure Drop and Flooding 130

5.3.6 Carbon Steel Trays 130

5.3.7 Rectifying Section of the Main Column 130

5.3.8 Side Stripping Columns 130

5.3.9 Crude Column Overhead 130

5.3.10 General Properties of Petroleum Fractions 130

5.4 Process Variables in the Design of Crude Distillation Column 132

5.4.1 Process Design of a Crude Distillation Column 133

5.5 Process Simulation 134

5.5.1 Overall Check of Simulation 135

5.5.2 Other Aspects of Design 136

5.5.3 Relationship between Actual Trays and Theoretical Trays 137

5.6 Process Description of Light Arabian Crude Using UniSim® Simulation Software [12] 138

5.6.1 Column Conventions 141

5.6.2 Performance Specifications Definition 142

5.6.3 Cut Points 142

5.6.4 Degree of Separation 142

5.6.5 Overflash 142

5.6.6 Column Pressure 143

5.6.7 Overhead Temperature 143

5.6.8 Bottom Stripping 144

5.6.9 Side Stream Stripper 144

5.6.10 Reflux 144

5.7 Troubleshooting Actual Columns 144

5.8 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 145

References 148

6 Thermal Cracking Processes 149

6.1 Process Description 152

6.2 Steam Jet Ejector 152

6.3 Pressure Survey in a Vacuum Column 154

6.4 Simulation of Vacuum Distillation Unit 156

6.5 Coking 157

6.5.1 Delayed Coking 157

6.5.2 Delayed Coker Yield Prediction 161

6.5.3 Coke Formation 162

6.5.4 Thermodynamics of Coking of Light Hydrocarbons 162

6.5.5 Gas Composition 163

6.6 Fluid Coking 164

6.6.1 Flexi-Coking 165

6.6.2 Contact Coking 167

6.6.3 Coke Drums 168

6.6.4 Heavy Coker Gas Oil (HCGO) Production 170

6.6.5 Light Coker Gas Oil (LCGO) Production 170

6.7 Fractionator Overhead System 170

6.8 Coke Drum Operations 172

6.9 Hydraulic Jet Decoking 173

6.10 Uses of Petroleum Coke 174

6.11 Use of Gasification 174

6.12 Sponge Coke 175

6.13 Safety and Environmental Considerations 175

6.14 Simulation/Calculations 176

6.15 Visbreaking 177

6.15.1 Visbreaking Reactions 180

6.15.2 Visbreaking Severity 180

6.15.3 Operation and Control 180

6.15.4 Typical Visbreaker Unit 181

6.15.5 Typical Visbreaker Unit with Vacuum Flasher 182

6.15.6 Typical Combination Visbreaker and Thermal Cracker 183

6.15.7 Product Yield 183

6.16 Process Simulation 184

6.17 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 185
References 186
7 Hydroprocessing 187

7.1 Catalytic Conversion Processes 187

7.1.1 Hydrocracking Chemistry 188

7.1.2 Hydrocracking Reactions 190

7.1.3 Typical Hydrocracking Reactions 191

7.2 Feed Specifications 194

7.2.1 Space Velocity 195

7.2.2 Reactor Temperature 195

7.2.3 Reactor Pressure 195

7.2.4 Hydrogen Recycle Rate 195

7.2.5 Oil Recycle Ratio 195

7.2.6 Heavy Polynuclear Aromatics 196

7.3 Feed Boiling Range 196

7.4 Catalyst 196

7.4.1 Catalyst Performance 197

7.4.2 Loss of Catalyst Performance 197

7.4.3 Poisoning by Impurities in Feeds or Catalysts 198

7.4.4 The Apparent Catalyst Activity 200

7.5 Poor Gas Distribution 200

7.6 Poor Mixing of Reactants 200

7.7 The Mechanism of Hydrocracking 200

7.8 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Hydrocracking 201

7.9 Process Design

Über Autor(innen)

Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K. and a Teacher's Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of five books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol 61. He was named as one of the International Biographical Centre's Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who's Who of ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who's Who in the U.S.