E-Book, Englisch, 1296 Seiten
E-Book, Englisch, 1296 Seiten
ISBN: 978-0-08-094242-1
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark
A. Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company (SASREF) and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, UK (C. Eng., FIChemE), and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, UK, and a Teacher's Certificate in Education at the University of London, UK. He has directed and conducted short courses extremely throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of ten books in chemical and petroleum engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Vol. 61, and a certified train - the mentor trainer. A Technical Report Assessor and Interviewer for chartered chemical engineers (IChemE) in the UK. He is a member of the International Biographical Centre in Cambridge, UK (IBC) as Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who's Who for ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who's Who in the US.
Zielgruppe
Academic/professional/technical: Research and professional
Autoren/Hrsg.
Weitere Infos & Material
1;Front
Cover;1
2;Ludwig’s Applied Process
Design for Chemical
and Petrochemical
Plants;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Dedication;6
5;Contents;8
6;Foreword;12
7;Preface to the Fourth Edition;14
8;Biography;16
9;Acknowledgments;18
10;Chapter 15 -
Heat Transfer;20
10.1;Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology;21
10.2;Details of Exchange Equipment;25
10.3;Tube Vibration;85
10.4;Nozzle Connections to Shell and Heads;93
10.5;Types of Heat Exchange Operations;94
10.6;Temperature Difference: Two Fluid Transfer;98
10.7;Temperature for Fluid Properties Evaluation - Caloric Temperature;128
10.8;Pressure Drop, .p;139
10.9;Heat Balance;148
10.10;Transfer Area;149
10.11;Fouling of Tube Surface;149
10.12;Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Plain or Bare Tubes;186
10.13;Approximate Values for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients;194
10.14;Film Coefficients with Fluids Outside Tubes Forced Convection;204
10.15;Design and Rating of Heat Exchangers;215
10.16;Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers;279
10.17;Spiral Heat Exchangers;289
10.18;Miscellaneous Special Application Heat Transfer Equipment;297
10.19;Heat Loss for Bare Process Pipe;308
10.20;Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers;323
10.21;Rating Method for Air-Cooled Exchangers;345
10.22;Two-Phase Flow Patterns;348
10.23;Modes of Condensation;356
10.24;Boiling and Vaporization;391
10.25;Heat Transfer in Jacketed, Agitated Vessels/Kettles;462
10.26;Falling Film Liquid Flow in Tubes;471
10.27;Batch Heating and Cooling of Fluids;473
10.28;Heat Exchanger Design With Computers;486
10.29;Maintenance of Heat Exchangers;490
10.30;General Symptoms in Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers;491
10.31;Case Studies of Heat Exchangers Explosion Hazards Incidents;491
10.32;References;496
10.33;Bibliography;505
11;Chapter 16 - Process Integration and Heat Exchanger Networks;510
11.1;INTRODUCTION;510
11.2;HEAT RECOVERY PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION;518
11.3;ENERGY TARGETS;520
11.4;THE HEAT RECOVERY PINCH AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE;525
11.5;A TARGETING PROCEDURE: THE PROBLEM TABLE ALGORITHM;528
11.6;THE GRAND COMPOSITE CURVE;531
11.7;PLACING UTILITIES USING THE GRAND COMPOSITE CURVE;531
11.8;STREAM MATCHING AT THE PINCH;533
11.9;THE PINCH DESIGN APPROACH TO INVENTING A NETWORK;535
11.10;HEAT EXCHANGER NETWORK DESIGN (HEN);535
11.11;DESIGN FOR THRESHOLD PROBLEMS;545
11.12;HEAT EXCHANGER AREA TARGETS;550
11.13;HEN SIMPLIFICATION;563
11.14;NUMBER OF SHELLS TARGET;567
11.15;IMPLICATIONS FOR HEN DESIGN;569
11.16;CAPITAL COST TARGETS;570
11.17;ENERGY TARGETING;571
11.18;SUPERTARGETING OR .TMIN OPTIMIZATION;572
11.19;SUMMARY: NEW HEAT EXCHANGER NETWORK DESIGN;574
11.20;TARGETING AND DESIGN FOR CONSTRAINED MATCHES;574
11.21;TARGETING BY LINEAR PROGRAMMING;576
11.22;HEAT ENGINES AND HEAT PUMPS FOR OPTIMUM INTEGRATION;577
11.23;PRESSURE DROP AND HEAT TRANSFER IN PROCESS INTEGRATION;588
11.24;TOTAL SITE ANALYSIS;590
11.25;APPLICATIONS OF PROCESS INTEGRATION;603
11.26;PITFALLS IN PROCESS INTEGRATION;619
11.27;CONCLUSIONS;620
11.28;INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS, CASE STUDIES AND EXAMPLES;624
11.29;GLOSSARY OF TERMS;636
11.30;SUMMARY AND HEURISTICS;638
11.31;NOMENCLATURE;639
11.32;REFERENCES;639
11.33;BIBLIOGRAPHY;641
12;Chapter 17 - Refrigeration Systems;642
12.1;CAPACITY OF REFRIGERATOR;643
12.2;THE CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE;643
12.3;PERFORMANCE OF A CARNOT REFRIGERATOR;645
12.4;MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION;646
12.5;TYPES OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS;650
12.6;TERMINOLOGY;650
12.7;SELECTION OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM FOR A GIVEN TEMPERATURE LEVEL AND HEAT LOAD;650
12.8;SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP;653
12.9;ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION;663
12.10;MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION;673
12.11;PROCESS PERFORMANCE;675
12.12;SYSTEM PERFORMANCE COMPARISON;680
12.13;HYDROCARBON REFRIGERANTS;686
12.14;REFRIGERATION STAGES;688
12.15;HYDROCARBON MIXTURES AND REFRIGERANTS;707
12.16;GENERALIZED COMMENTS REGARDING REFRIGERANTS;724
12.17;SYSTEM DESIGN AND SELECTION;727
12.18;RECEIVER;734
12.19;ECONOMIZERS;734
12.20;SUCTION GAS SUPERHEAT;734
12.21;CASCADE SYSTEMS;737
12.22;COMPOUND COMPRESSION SYSTEM;737
12.23;COMPARISON OF EFFECT OF SYSTEM CYCLE AND EXPANSION VALVES ON REQUIRED HORSEPOWER;739
12.24;CRYOGENICS;739
12.25;SIMULATION OF A PROPANE REFRIGERATION LOOP;741
12.26;USING HYSYS SIMULATION SOFTWARE PACKAGE;741
12.27;GLOSSARY OF TERMS;743
12.28;NOMENCLATURE;744
12.29;REFERENCES;745
12.30;BIBLIOGRAPHY;745
13;Chapter 18 - Compression Equipment (Including Fans);748
13.1;GENERAL APPLICATION GUIDE;748
13.2;SPECIFICATION GUIDES;749
13.3;GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ANY TYPE OF COMPRESSOR FLOW CONDITIONS;751
13.4;RECIPROCATING COMPRESSION;752
13.5;COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS;790
13.6;SOLUTION OF COMPRESSION PROBLEMS USING MOLLIER DIAGRAMS;815
13.7;CYLINDER UNLOADING;825
13.8;AIR COMPRESSOR SELECTION;832
13.9;ENERGY FLOW;833
13.10;CONSTANT-T SYSTEM;836
13.11;POLYTROPIC SYSTEM;836
13.12;CONSTANT S SYSTEM;837
13.13;CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS;837
13.14;COMPRESSOR EQUATIONS IN SI UNITS;887
13.15;MULTICOMPONENT GAS STREAMS;893
13.16;TREATMENT OF COMPRESSOR FLUIDS;894
13.17;CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE IN PROCESS SYSTEM;895
13.18;EXPANSION TURBINES;909
13.19;AXIAL COMPRESSOR;910
13.20;LIQUID RING COMPRESSORS;914
13.21;ROTARY TWO-IMPELLER (LOBE) BLOWERS AND VACUUM PUMPS;916
13.22;ROTARY AXIAL SCREW BLOWER AND VACUUM PUMPS;920
13.23;ROTARY SLIDING VANE COMPRESSOR;924
13.24;OIL-FLOODED SCREW COMPRESSORS;926
13.25;INTEGRALLY GEARED COMPRESSORS;928
13.26;OTHER PROCESS-RELATED COMPRESSORS;931
13.27;ADVANCES IN COMPRESSOR TECHNOLOGY;932
13.28;TROUBLESHOOTING OF CENTRIFUGAL AND RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS;932
13.29;FANS;940
13.30;BLOWERS AND EXHAUSTERS;985
13.31;NOMENCLATURE;992
13.32;GREEK SYMBOLS;993
13.33;SUBSCRIPTS;993
13.34;REFERENCES;993
13.35;BIBLIOGRAPHY;996
14;Chapter 19 - Reciprocating Compression Surge Drums;998
14.1;PULSATION DAMPENER OR SURGE DRUM;998
14.2;COMMON DESIGN TERMINOLOGY;999
14.3;APPLICATIONS;1002
14.4;INTERNAL DETAILS;1009
14.5;DESIGN METHOD - SURGE DRUMS (NONACOUSTIC);1009
14.6;SINGLE-COMPRESSION CYLINDER;1010
14.7;PARALLEL MULTICYLINDER ARRANGEMENT USING COMMON SURGE DRUM;1011
14.8;PIPE SIZES FOR SURGE DRUM SYSTEMS [14,15];1011
14.9;FREQUENCY OF PULSATIONS;1015
14.10;COMPRESSOR SUCTION AND DISCHARGE DRUMS;1016
14.11;DESIGN METHOD - MODIFIED NACA METHOD FOR THE DESIGN OF SUCTION AND DISCHARGE DRUMS;1025
14.12;PIPE RESONANCE;1028
14.13;MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS: DRUMS/BOTTLES AND PIPING;1029
14.14;NOMENCLATURE;1029
14.15;GREEK;1032
14.16;SUBSCRIPTS;1032
14.17;REFERENCES;1032
14.18;BIBLIOGRAPHY;1032
15;Chapter 20 - Mechanical Drivers;1034
15.1;ELECTRIC MOTORS;1034
15.2;MECHANICAL DRIVE STEAM TURBINES;1084
15.3;GAS AND GAS-DIESEL ENGINES;1103
15.4;COMBUSTION GAS TURBINE;1105
15.5;NOMENCLATURE;1110
15.6;REFERENCES;1110
15.7;BIBLIOGRAPHY;1112
16;Chapter 21 - Industrial and Laboratory Reactors - Chemical Reaction Hazards and Process Integration of Reactors;1114
16.1;INTRODUCTION;1114
16.2;BATCH ISOTHERMAL PERFECTLY STIRRED REACTOR;1115
16.3;SEMI-BATCH REACTORS;1116
16.4;CONTINUOUS FLOW ISOTHERMAL PERFECTLY STIRRED TANK REACTOR;1118
16.5;CONTINUOUS ISOTHERMAL PLUG FLOW (TUBULAR) REACTOR;1119
16.6;CONTINUOUS MULTIPHASE REACTORS;1122
16.7;FLUIDIZED BED SYSTEM;1125
16.8;FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING (FCC) UNIT;1126
16.9;DEEP CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT;1129
16.10;BUBBLE COLUMN REACTOR;1133
16.11;AGITATOR TYPES FOR DIFFERENT REACTION SYSTEMS;1136
16.12;CATALYSTS AND CATALYTIC PROCESSES;1141
16.13;DETERMINING LABORATORY REACTORS;1142
16.14;RECIRCULATING REACTORS;1150
16.15;GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING BATCH PROCESSES;1151
16.16;HEAT TRANSFER IN REACTORS;1153
16.17;CHEMICAL REACTION HAZARDOUS INCIDENTS;1154
16.18;CHEMICAL REACTIVITY WORKSHEET (CRW);1160
16.19;PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR RUNAWAY REACTIONS;1160
16.20;SAFETY IN EMERGENCY RELIEF SYSTEMS;1160
16.21;PROCESS HAZARD ANALYSIS (PHA);1169
16.22;HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY (HAZOP);1171
16.23;HAZARD ANALYSIS (HAZAN);1174
16.24;FAULT TREE ANALYSIS;1175
16.25;KEY FINDINGS BY US CHEMICAL SAFETY AND HAZARD INVESTIGATION BOARD (CSB) [11];1176
16.26;REACTIVE SYSTEM SCREENING TOOL (RSST);1177
16.27;ENERGY BALANCES ON BATCH REACTORS;1180
16.28;THE f FACTOR ACCOUNTING FOR THE HEAT CAPACITIES OF THE BOMB CALORIMETER;1181
16.29;ADIABATIC OPERATION OF A BATCH REACTOR;1182
16.30;RELIEF VALVE SIZING CALCULATIONS;1186
16.31;VENT SIZING EQUATIONS;1193
16.32;DISCHARGE SYSTEM;1194
16.33;HAZARDOUS PYROPHORIC REACTION;1210
16.34;HEAT-INTEGRATED REACTORS;1211
16.35;APPROPRIATE PLACEMENT OF REACTORS;1212
16.36;REACTOR DESIGN TO IMPROVE HEAT INTEGRATION;1213
16.37;GLOSSARY;1217
16.38;REFERENCES;1226
16.39;USEFUL WEB ADDRESSES;1227
17;Chapter 22 - Metallurgy - Corrosion;1228
17.1;INTRODUCTION;1228
17.2;MATERIAL SELECTION;1229
17.3;EMBRITTLEMENT;1229
17.4;ENVIRONMENTAL CRACKING;1230
17.5;CREEP AND CREEP RUPTURE LIFE [3];1237
17.6;MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS IN REFINING AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTION;1238
17.7;CORROSION;1241
17.8;REFERENCES;1260
18;Index;1262
Chapter 15 Heat Transfer
The escalating cost of energy in recent years has resulted in increased attention being given to conservation and efficient energy management. Other types of technology, for example, pinch technology (Chapter 16) have been employed in the energy integration of process plants and of heat exchangers, in particular. This has resulted in improved plant performance and reduced operation costs. Heat transfer is perhaps the most important, as well as the most applied, process in refining, gas processing, chemical and petrochemical plants. The economics of plant operation are controlled by the effectiveness of the use and recovery of heat or cold (refrigeration). The service functions of steam, power, refrigeration supply and the like are dictated by how these services or utilities are used within the process to produce an efficient conversion and recovery of heat. Shell and tube heat exchanger types are widely employed, and generally, they are custom designed for any capacity and operating conditions, including from high vacuum to ultra-high pressures of over 15,000 psig (100 MPa), from cryogenic conditions to high temperatures of ~2000°F (1100°C), and any temperature and pressure differences between the fluids, limited only by the materials of construction. They can be designed for special operating conditions: heavy fouling, highly viscous fluids, erosion, corrosion, toxicity, multicomponent mixtures, vibration, etc. They are the most versatile exchanger types made from a variety of metals (e.g. Admiralty, copper, alloys, monel, nickel, aluminum, carbon/stainless steel, etc.) and non-metal materials (e.g. graphite, glass and Teflon) and in various sizes from 1 ft2 (0.1 m2) to 106 ft2 (105 m2). They are extensively employed as process heat exchangers in petroleum refining, petrochemicals and chemical industries; as boiler feed water heaters, phase change heat exchangers (e.g. reboilers and condensers), evaporators, steam generators and oil coolers in power plants, in some air conditioning and refrigeration applications; in waste heat recovery applications with heat recovery from liquids and condensing fluids and in environmental control. The tube-side is for corrosive, heavy fouling, scaling, hazardous, high temperature and pressure, and more expensive fluids, while the shell-side is for cleaner, more viscous, lower flow rate, evaporating and condensing fluids. When a gas or vapor is used as an exchanger fluid, it is typically introduced through the shell-side, and viscous liquids, for which the pressure drop for flow through the tubes is high, are introduced on the shell-side. Generally, shell and tube exchanger types are non-compact exchangers, and the heat-transfer area per unit volume ranges from 15 to 30 ft2/ft3 (50–100 m2/m3). Therefore, they require a considerable amount of space, support structure, capital and installation costs. As a result, they are often replaced with compact heat exchangers (e.g. plate exchangers, spiral plate heat exchangers) in those applications where the operating conditions permit it. For the equivalent cost of the shell and tube exchangers, compact heat exchangers provide high effectiveness and are more efficient in heat (energy) transfer. Although many excellent references [5,22,36,40,61,70,74,82,286,287,288 and 289] are available, and the technical literature contains important details of good heat transfer design principles and good approaches to equipment design, an unknown factor still enters into every design. This factor is the scale or fouling from the fluids being processed and is wholly dependent on the fluids, their temperature and velocity, and to a certain extent, the nature of the heat-transfer tube surface and its chemical composition. Due to the unknown nature of the assumptions, these fouling factors can markedly affect the design of heat transfer equipment. We shall review this aspect, and others such as the pressure drop, later in the chapter as these could have deleterious effects on the performance of heat exchangers resulting in high operating costs of millions of US dollars per annum. Conventional practice is presented here; however, Kern and Seaton [71] have proposed thermal concepts that may offer new approaches. The most popular and reliable software packages for the design or rating of shell and tube heat exchangers are: • BJAC: USA based company • HEI: Heat Exchange Institute, USA • HTRI: Heat Transfer Research Institute (www.HTRI.net), USA • HFTS: Heat Transfer Fluid Flow Services (HTFS programs are part of Aspen Technology’s Aspen Engineering Suite and Honeywell’s UniSim Design Suite) Generally, the design methods and equations used by these companies and institutes are proprietary and therefore, are not provided in the open literature. Tinker [290,291] published the first detailed stream analysis method for predicting shell and tube heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop, and his model has been used as the basis for the proprietary computer methods developed by these institutes and companies. Tinker’s method is difficult and tedious to apply in manual calculations. However, it has been simplified by Devore [292,293], using standard tolerances for commercial exchangers and only a limited number of baffle cuts. Devore has presented nomographs that facilitate the application of the method in manual calculations. Mueller [294] has further simplified Devore’s method and provides an illustrative example. Bell [295,296] has provided a semi-analytical method based on research programs carried out on shell and tube exchangers at the University of Delaware, where his results accounted for the major bypass and leakage streams. This text provides the designer with a basis for manually checking the expected equations, coefficients, etc., enabling him/her to accept or reject the computed results. The text provides a basis for completely designing the process heat transfer equipment (except for specialized items such as fired heaters, steam boiler/generators, cryogenic equipment and some other process requirements), and sizing (for mechanical dimensions/details, but not for pressure or strength) the mechanical hardware that will accomplish this function. Additionally, the text presents research studies on fouling in shell and tube heat exchangers, and, in particular, in pre-heat trains in the refining of crude oil. Detailed reviews are supplied with examples, employing developed Microsoft Excel programs for determining heat transfer coefficients in jacketed, agitated vessels and the time required for batch processing involving isothermal and non-isothermal heating and cooling conditions with coils and external heat exchangers, as experienced in various chemical process industries. Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology
The chemical process industries (CPIs) require heat exchangers to transfer heat from a hot stream to a cold stream. This heat transfer equipment must meet various codes/standards to deal with the thermal, mechanical, operational, installation and maintenance demands of the process. The optimal heat exchanger design should minimize operating costs and maximize product output. Shell and tube heat exchangers (Figures 15-1B–D) consist of a bundle of tubes inside a cylindrical shell. One fluid (the tube-side fluid) flows inside the tubes while the other fluid (the shell-side fluid) flows through the shell and around the tubes. Heat is transferred across the tube wall separating the hot and cold streams. The shell type has a significant effect on the flow configuration and thermal performance of the heat exchangers. Shell and tube heat exchangers use baffles to transport heat to or from tube-side process fluids by directing the shell-side fluid flow. The increased structural support that baffles provide is essential to the tube’s stability, as they prevent the tube from sagging due to its structural weight and also minimize vibration due to cyclic flow forces. Baffles improve heat transfer at the expense of increased pressure drop. Tubesheets seal the ends of the tubes, ensuring separation between the two streams. The process engineer needs to understand the terminology of the heat transfer equipment manufacturers in order to properly design, specify, evaluate bids and to check drawings of this equipment. The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major parts: • Front header – this is where the fluid enters the tube-side of the exchanger. It is sometimes referred to as the stationary header. • Rear header – this is where the tube-side fluid leaves the exchanger, or where it is returned to the front header in exchangers with multiple tube-side passes. • Tube bundle – this comprises of the tubes, tube sheets, baffles and tie rods etc. which hold the bundle together. • Shell – this contains the tube bundle. The standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) [107] is the only assembly of unfired mechanical standards, including selected design details and Recommended Good Practice and it is used by all reputable exchanger manufacturers in the US and many manufacturers in other countries who supply US plant equipment. These...
