E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 1A, 810 Seiten
The Immigrants
E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 1A, 810 Seiten
Reihe: Handbook of the Economics of International Migration
ISBN: 978-0-444-53765-2
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark
Autoren/Hrsg.
Weitere Infos & Material
1;Front Cover;1
2;Volume 1A The Immigrants;4
3;Introduction to The Series;3
4;Copyright;5
5;Contents;6
6;Dedication;8
7;Reviewers;10
8;Preface;12
9;Introduction;14
10;In memoriam: Paul W. Miller (1955-2013)*;18
11;Part I: The Determinants of International Migration;22
11.1;Chapter 1: Migration Theory*;24
11.1.1;1. Overview;25
11.1.2;2. From Adam Smith to the New Millennium;25
11.1.2.1;2.1. Pre-1960 literature;26
11.1.2.2;2.2. Forming the core of migration theory: migration as human capital investment;29
11.1.2.3;2.3. Early extensions of the Sjaastad model;36
11.1.2.3.1;2.3.1. The migrant as a consumer;36
11.1.2.3.2;2.3.2. The influence of kinship and migrant networks;38
11.1.2.3.3;2.3.3. Migration decisions in a life-cycle context;39
11.1.2.3.4;2.3.4. The effects of uncertainty on migration;40
11.1.2.3.5;2.3.5. What happens when the family is the decision-making unit?;43
11.1.2.3.6;2.3.6. Migration as a response to relative deprivation;45
11.1.2.3.7;2.3.7. The influence of age on the migration decision;46
11.1.3;3. Recent Theoretical Analyses of Why People Migrate;47
11.1.3.1;3.1. A static human capital model with endogenous migration;48
11.1.3.1.1;3.1.1. Adding migration costs;49
11.1.3.1.2;3.1.2. Incorporating immigration policy;50
11.1.3.1.3;3.1.3. Incorporating self-selection;51
11.1.3.1.4;3.1.4. Blending self-selection and migration costs;52
11.1.3.1.5;3.1.5. Accounting for income inequality;53
11.1.3.1.6;3.1.6. Introducing credit and poverty constraints;53
11.1.3.1.7;3.1.7. Accounting for unemployment;54
11.1.3.1.8;3.1.8. Incorporating taxes and social insurance;55
11.1.3.1.9;3.1.9. Accounting for political institutions;56
11.1.3.2;3.2. A static human capital model with endogenous migration and endogenous wages;56
11.1.3.2.1;3.2.1. Accounting for network effects;58
11.1.3.2.2;3.2.2. Distinguishing between individual and household migration decisions;58
11.1.3.2.3;3.2.3. The relationship between trade and migration;58
11.1.3.3;3.3. Dynamic models with endogenous migration and physical capital accumulation;59
11.1.3.3.1;3.3.1. Immigration policy in a dynamic framework;61
11.1.3.3.2;3.3.2. Accounting for remittance behavior;61
11.1.3.3.3;3.3.3. Dynamic models with human capital accumulation;62
11.1.3.3.4;3.3.4. Accounting for temporary, return, and circular migration;63
11.1.3.3.5;3.3.5. Dynamic models with human capital accumulation, circular migration, and brain drain;64
11.1.4;4. Conclusions and Implications for Further Research;65
11.1.5;References;67
11.2;Chapter 2: Two Centuries of International Migration;74
11.2.1;1. Migration and Globalization to 1950;74
11.2.1.1;1.1. Evolving migration systems;74
11.2.1.2;1.2. The rise of mass migration from Europe;77
11.2.1.3;1.3. Immigrant selection and assimilation in the New World;79
11.2.1.4;1.4. The effects of migration at home and abroad;81
11.2.1.5;1.5. Migration in Asia;83
11.2.1.6;1.6. The policy backlash and de-globalization;85
11.2.2;2. International Migration Since 1950;87
11.2.2.1;2.1. Long-run trends;87
11.2.2.2;2.2. What drove postwar migration?;90
11.2.2.3;2.3. Immigrant selection and assimilation in the developed world;91
11.2.2.4;2.4. Immigrant selection and the brain drain;94
11.2.2.5;2.5. The labor market effects of immigration;95
11.2.2.6;2.6. Trends in immigration policy;97
11.2.2.7;2.7. Public attitudes and immigration policy;100
11.2.3;3. International Migration and Policy in the Future;101
11.2.3.1;3.1. How many migrants?;101
11.2.3.2;3.2. Can policy rise to the challenge?;103
11.2.4;References;104
12;Cameo 1: World Migration in Historical Perspective: Four Big Issues;110
12.1;1. Emigration Life Cycles, Industrial Revolutions, and Demographic Transitions;110
12.2;2. Brain Drain, Brain Gain, Skill Premia, and Endogenous Schooling Responses;112
12.3;3. Migration, Remittances, Financial Development, and Convergence;115
12.4;4. Migration Timing, the Ten Percent Rule, and Political Backlash;119
12.5;References;121
13;Part II: The Adjustment of Immigrants;124
13.1;Chapter 3: The Adjustment of Immigrants in the Labor Market;126
13.1.1;1. Immigrant Labor Market Outcomes-Theoretical and Methodological Considerations;129
13.1.1.1;1.1. International skill transferability and investment in host-country-specific skills;129
13.1.1.2;1.2. An occupational mobility model;131
13.1.1.3;1.3. Testing the IAM's predictions about immigrant earnings and cross-sectional bias;132
13.1.1.4;1.4. A decline in immigrant entry earnings;133
13.1.1.5;1.5. Expanding on Chiswick's Theoretical Model and Borjas's discovery of an unexplained decline in immigrant entry earnings;135
13.1.1.5.1;1.5.1. Theoretical extensions of Chiswick's IAM;135
13.1.1.5.2;1.5.2. Empirical extensions;137
13.1.1.6;1.6. Methodological points;139
13.1.1.6.1;1.6.1. Other issues with following cohorts;142
13.1.1.6.2;1.6.2. Excluding zero earners and the self-employed;144
13.1.2;2. Individual Attributes and Motives for Migrating;145
13.1.2.1;2.1. Level of schooling;146
13.1.2.1.1;2.1.1. Skill transferability and where immigrants receive their schooling;147
13.1.2.1.2;2.1.2. How skill transferability interacts with level of schooling;148
13.1.2.1.3;2.1.3. Controlling for education in immigrant adjustment models;148
13.1.2.2;2.2. Ability;149
13.1.2.3;2.3. Constraints;151
13.1.2.4;2.4. The importance of being permanent;152
13.1.2.5;2.5. Country of origin;155
13.1.2.6;2.6. Admission status;159
13.1.2.6.1;2.6.1. Admission on the basis of kinship versus skills;159
13.1.2.6.2;2.6.2. Kinship admissions and other types of labor market adjustment;159
13.1.2.6.3;2.6.3. Refugees;160
13.1.2.6.4;2.6.4. The undocumented;162
13.1.3;3. Beyond the Individual-Economic and Social Contexts Affecting Labor Market Outcomes;163
13.1.3.1;3.1. The structure of the labor market;164
13.1.3.2;3.2. Enclaves;164
13.1.3.3;3.3. The permanence of the community;167
13.1.3.4;3.4. The state of the labor market;167
13.1.3.4.1;3.4.1. Other effects of the state of the labor market on immigrant adjustment;169
13.1.3.5;3.5. Structural changes over time in the host economy;170
13.1.4;4. Labor Market Outcomes for Immigrant Women;171
13.1.4.1;4.1. The Family Investment Hypothesis: theoretical underpinnings;172
13.1.4.2;4.2. The Family Investment Hypothesis: empirical support;173
13.1.4.3;4.3. Ramifications of immigrant women joining the labor market;174
13.1.4.4;4.4. Family-based models of immigrant labor market adjustment and fertility;175
13.1.4.5;4.5. Following cohorts: another look at the Family Investment Hypothesis;176
13.1.4.6;4.6. Two mysteries about testing for the Family Investment Hypothesis;177
13.1.5;5. Immigrant Economic Adjustment: Evidence from Countries Other than the United States;178
13.1.5.1;5.1. Country of origin, structural changes, and declines in immigrant initial earnings;179
13.1.5.2;5.2. Evidence of convergence;179
13.1.5.3;5.3. The importance of being permanent;180
13.1.5.4;5.4. The flexibility of a country's labor market and society;181
13.1.6;6. Summary and Directions for Further Research;183
13.1.6.1;6.1. The Occupational Mobility Model;184
13.1.6.2;6.2. The Immigrant Human Capital Investment Model;184
13.1.6.3;6.3. Empirical offspring of the IAM;185
13.1.6.4;6.4. Immigrant ability and the relative flexibility of societies;186
13.1.6.5;6.5. Skill acquisition;187
13.1.6.6;6.6. Beyond the individual;189
13.1.6.7;6.7. Immigrant women;190
13.1.6.8;6.8. Permanence;191
13.1.6.9;6.9. A concluding caveat;192
13.1.7;References;192
13.2;Chapter 4: The Human Capital (Schooling) of Immigrants in America;204
13.2.1;1. Introduction;204
13.2.2;2. Schooling of Migrants and the Native-Born;205
13.2.3;3. The Changing Education Gap of Immigrants;209
13.2.4;4. The Educational Diversity of Migrants;217
13.2.5;5. Foreign Students at American Schools;223
13.2.6;6. Immigrant Education and Generational Assimilation;227
13.2.7;7. Conclusions;229
13.2.8;Acknowledgments;230
13.2.9;References;230
13.3;Chapter 5: International Migration and the Economics of Language;232
13.3.1;1. Introduction;233
13.3.2;2. Research Issues and Methodology;235
13.3.3;3. Choice of Destination;237
13.3.3.1;3.1. Choice of initial destination country;238
13.3.3.2;3.2. Location choice within a country;246
13.3.4;4. Determinants of Language Proficiency;249
13.3.4.1;4.1. Exposure;250
13.3.4.2;4.2. Efficiency;254
13.3.4.3;4.3. Economic incentives;258
13.3.5;5. Effects of Language on Earnings;261
13.3.5.1;5.1. Background considerations;261
13.3.5.2;5.2. Around the globe: different countries, different languages, similar results;265
13.3.5.2.1;5.2.1. Australia;265
13.3.5.2.2;5.2.2. Canada;267
13.3.5.2.3;5.2.3. Germany;269
13.3.5.2.4;5.2.4. Israel;271
13.3.5.2.5;5.2.5. Spain;272
13.3.5.2.6;5.2.6. United Kingdom;274
13.3.5.2.7;5.2.7. United States;275
13.3.5.3;5.3. An overview of the effects of dominant language proficiency on earnings;278
13.3.5.4;5.4. Ethnic enclaves effects on earnings;278
13.3.6;6. Summary and Conclusions;285
13.3.7;Acknowledgments;286
13.3.8;References;286
13.4;Chapter 6: Immigrants and Immigrant Health;292
13.4.1;1. Introduction;292
13.4.2;2. Determinants of the HIE;294
13.4.2.1;2.1. Selective immigration;294
13.4.2.2;2.2. Health care access;295
13.4.2.3;2.3. Income assimilation;296
13.4.2.4;2.4. Acculturation;296
13.4.2.5;2.5. Recent empirical evidence of weight assimilation;297
13.4.3;3. The National Health Interview Survey;298
13.4.4;4. Measuring Immigrant Health and Assimilation;305
13.4.5;5. Analyzing Cohort and Assimilation Effects;311
13.4.6;6. The Healthy Immigrant Effect;312
13.4.6.1;6.1. Weight patterns by nativity;318
13.4.6.2;6.2. Immigrant assimilation and cohort differentials;320
13.4.7;7. Conclusions;331
13.4.8;References;332
13.5;Chapter 7: Immigrants and Demography: Marriage, Divorce, and Fertility;336
13.5.1;1. Motivation: Why Study Immigrant Marriage and Fertility?;336
13.5.2;2. Methodological Challenges to the Study of Immigrant Marriage and Fertility;340
13.5.2.1;2.1. Immigrant selection and individual heterogeneity;340
13.5.2.2;2.2. Data limitations to measuring family formation;342
13.5.3;3. Marriage and Divorce Among Immigrants;345
13.5.3.1;3.1. Microeconomic models of marriage formation;346
13.5.3.2;3.2. The determinants of intermarriage;352
13.5.3.3;3.3. Intermarriage as assimilation;356
13.5.3.4;3.4. Assortative matching in education and language;358
13.5.3.5;3.5. The timing of family formation;361
13.5.3.6;3.6. Cohabitation;362
13.5.3.7;3.7. Stability of marriage;363
13.5.3.8;3.8. Family reunification policies and their impact on marriage formation;365
13.5.4;4. Fertility;366
13.5.4.1;4.1. Microeconomic models of fertility;366
13.5.4.2;4.2. Immigrant differential fertility: mechanisms;367
13.5.4.2.1;4.2.1. Selection;368
13.5.4.2.2;4.2.2. Disruption;369
13.5.4.2.3;4.2.3. Adaptation;372
13.5.4.3;4.3. Duration in destination and age at arrival;372
13.5.4.3.1;4.3.1. Age at arrival, language proficiency, and critical period hypothesis;376
13.5.4.4;4.4. The role of culture: heterogeneity across source countries and adaptation;379
13.5.4.5;4.5. Son preference;382
13.5.4.6;4.6. The fertility of the second generation;383
13.5.5;5. Conclusion;387
13.5.6;References;388
14;Cameo 2: Immigrants and Religion;396
14.1;Chapter 8: Immigrants’ Access to Financial Services and Asset Accumulation*;408
14.1.1;1. Introduction;409
14.1.2;2. Conceptual Framework;412
14.1.3;3. Data, Summary Statistics, and Empirical Specification;415
14.1.3.1;3.1. Data;415
14.1.3.2;3.2. Summary statistics: wealth and financial market participation;416
14.1.3.3;3.3. Summary statistics: differences in characteristics;421
14.1.3.4;3.4. Estimating financial market participation;423
14.1.4;4. Characteristics, Immigrant Status, and Financial Market Participation;425
14.1.4.1;4.1. Estimates of the impact of characteristics on financial market participation and durable goods acquisition;425
14.1.4.2;4.2. Estimates of the impact of being an immigrant on financial market participation;430
14.1.5;5. Immigrant Adaptation;433
14.1.5.1;5.1. Legal status;439
14.1.6;6. Potential Explanations;440
14.1.6.1;6.1. Housing and financial market participation;441
14.1.6.2;6.2. Country-of-origin characteristics;442
14.1.6.3;6.3. Ethnic concentration;443
14.1.6.4;6.4. Remittances, return migration intentions, wealth held abroad;445
14.1.6.5;6.5. Supply-side factors: location and design of financial institution and products;447
14.1.7;7. Cross-Country Comparisons;448
14.1.8;8. Summary of Findings and Policy Priorities;455
14.1.8.1;8.1. Key findings;455
14.1.8.2;8.2. Policy priorities;456
14.1.9;Appendix;457
14.1.10;References;460
14.2;Chapter 9: From Aliens to Citizens: The Political Incorporation of Immigrants;464
14.2.1;1. Introduction;464
14.2.2;2. Contemporary Policies of Immigrant Political Incorporation;466
14.2.2.1;2.1. Legal status and access to rights for long-term residents;467
14.2.2.2;2.2. Access to rights for other non-citizens;472
14.2.2.3;2.3. Naturalization;473
14.2.2.4;2.4. Citizenship for second-generation immigrants;478
14.2.2.4.1;2.4.1. Multiple citizenships;481
14.2.3;3. Explaining Differences in Incorporation Policies;485
14.2.3.1;3.1. Democracy;485
14.2.3.2;3.2. Human rights;487
14.2.3.3;3.3. Nationhood;488
14.2.3.4;3.4. Colonial background and other historical ties;490
14.2.3.5;3.5. State- and nation-building;491
14.2.3.6;3.6. Regional integration;492
14.2.4;4. Political Inclusion: Voting and Other Forms of Participation;492
14.2.4.1;4.1. Citizenship and economic integration;497
14.2.4.1.1;4.1.1. Who is naturalizing?;497
14.2.4.1.2;4.1.2. Economic effects of citizenship ascension;499
14.2.5;5. Conclusions;502
14.2.6;References;503
14.3;Chapter 10: Selective Out-Migration and the Estimation of Immigrants’ Earnings Profiles;510
14.3.1;1. Introduction;396
14.3.2;2. Economics of Religion;397
14.3.2.1;2.1. Transferability of religious human capital;398
14.3.2.2;2.2. Religious groups as quasi-enclaves;399
14.3.2.3;2.3. Religious free-riders;400
14.3.3;3. Immigrant Religiosity;401
14.3.3.1;3.1. Self-selection for religiosity;401
14.3.3.2;3.2. Religiosity and assimilation;401
14.3.4;4. Immigrant Churches;402
14.3.5;5. Religious Observance, Institutions, and Beliefs;404
14.3.6;References;405
14.3.7;1. Introduction;510
14.3.8;2. Evidence on Temporary Migration and Selective Out-Migration;512
14.3.8.1;2.1. Selective out-migration by country of origin;513
14.3.8.2;2.2. Selection on education;517
14.3.8.3;2.3. Selection on earnings;519
14.3.8.4;2.4. Other characteristics and out-migration;521
14.3.9;3. Estimating Immigrants Career Profiles;522
14.3.9.1;3.1. Key research questions and immigrants career profiles;523
14.3.9.2;3.2. Estimation and identification of immigrant career profiles;525
14.3.9.2.1;3.2.1. Stock sampled data;527
14.3.9.2.2;3.2.2. Complete longitudinal data;531
14.3.9.3;3.3. Numerical example;534
14.3.9.4;3.4. Interpretation: A simple model of return migration;539
14.3.10;4. Existent Studies on the Estimation of Earnings Equations when Out-Migration is Nonrandom;543
14.3.10.1;4.1. Studies using stock sampled longitudinal data;544
14.3.10.2;4.2. Studies using longitudinal data;545
14.3.11;5. Conclusions;549
14.3.12;Acknowledgments;550
14.3.13;References;550
15;Part III: Types of Immigrants;556
15.1;Chapter 11: High-Skilled Immigration in a Globalized Labor Market;558
15.1.1;1. Introduction;559
15.1.2;2. Demographic, Economic, and Policy Context;564
15.1.2.1;2.1. Modern economies and aging populations;564
15.1.2.2;2.2. Growth in supply of potential immigrants;564
15.1.2.3;2.3. Growth in demand for skilled immigration in OECD countries;565
15.1.2.4;2.4. Gender breakdown in immigration flows;565
15.1.3;3. Theoretical Foundation;566
15.1.3.1;3.1. Effects of high-skilled immigration on the receiving economy;566
15.1.3.2;3.2. Public finance implications of high-skilled immigration versus low-skilled immigration;567
15.1.3.3;3.3. Models of skilled immigration policy;567
15.1.3.3.1;3.3.1. Human capital point systems;568
15.1.3.3.2;3.3.2. Intended occupation point systems;568
15.1.3.3.3;3.3.3. Employer nomination;569
15.1.3.3.4;3.3.4. Hybrid selection systems;569
15.1.3.4;3.4. Temporary foreign worker programs;570
15.1.4;4. High-Skilled Immigration Policy in Practice;571
15.1.4.1;4.1. Canada;571
15.1.4.2;4.2. United States;572
15.1.4.3;4.3. Australia;573
15.1.4.4;4.4. New Zealand;574
15.1.4.5;4.5. United Kingdom;575
15.1.4.6;4.6. Cross-country comparisons;575
15.1.4.7;4.7. Temporary foreign worker programs and two-step immigration;576
15.1.4.7.1;4.7.1. United States;576
15.1.4.7.2;4.7.2. Canada;577
15.1.4.7.3;4.7.3. Europe;579
15.1.5;5. Research on Labor Market Outcomes of Skilled Immigrants;580
15.1.5.1;5.1. Earnings and post-migration investments in education;580
15.1.5.2;5.2. Field of employment, credential recognition, and occupational matching;583
15.1.5.3;5.3. Immigrant selection and regulated occupations;584
15.1.5.4;5.4. Boom and bust cycles and occupational targeting;586
15.1.5.5;5.5. Gender differences in immigrant outcomes and family investment strategies;587
15.1.6;6. Effects of Skilled Immigration for both Sending and Receiving Economics;588
15.1.6.1;6.1. Evidence of immigration effects on sending economies;589
15.1.6.1.1;6.1.1. Gender and the brain drain;591
15.1.6.2;6.2. Evidence of immigration effects on receiving economies;591
15.1.6.2.1;6.2.1. Estimated effects on native earnings;592
15.1.6.2.2;6.2.2. Estimated effects on training of non-immigrants;593
15.1.6.2.3;6.2.3. Effects on research and development, patents, and innovation;594
15.1.6.2.4;6.2.4. Occupational choice;594
15.1.6.2.5;6.2.5. Fiscal impact of immigration;595
15.1.6.2.6;6.2.6. Demographic challenges and immigration;595
15.1.7;7. Summary and Conclusions;596
15.1.8;8. Gaps;597
15.1.9;Acknowledgments;598
15.1.10;References;598
15.2;Chapter 12: The Refugee/Asylum Seeker;606
15.2.1;1. Introduction;607
15.2.1.1;1.1. Defining refugees and asylum seekers;607
15.2.1.2;1.2. Trends in asylum and refugee applications: around the world and in the United States of America;608
15.2.1.2.1;1.2.1. World trends;608
15.2.1.2.2;1.2.2. Trends in the United States;613
15.2.2;2. Who Migrates? Comparing Refugees to Other Migrants;617
15.2.2.1;2.1. Conceptual framework: the migration decision;617
15.2.2.2;2.2. Previous work comparing refugees to other migrants;621
15.2.2.3;2.3. Refugees in the United States: a snapshot from the New Immigrant Survey;622
15.2.2.3.1;2.3.1. Exposure to persecution;622
15.2.2.3.2;2.3.2. Demographic, human capital, and labor market characteristics;623
15.2.2.3.3;2.3.3. Within-source-country comparisons;631
15.2.2.3.4;2.3.4. Discussion;634
15.2.3;3. Economic Assimilation of Refugees in the Host Country;636
15.2.3.1;3.1. Conceptual framework: the human capital investment decision;636
15.2.3.2;3.2. Previous research on economic assimilation of refugee immigrants;637
15.2.3.3;3.3. The economic assimilation of refugees in the United States: evidence from census microdata;640
15.2.3.3.1;3.3.1. Characteristics of refugees and non-refugee migrants arriving in the United States 1975-80;642
15.2.3.3.2;3.3.2. Long-run labor market assimilation;647
15.2.3.3.3;3.3.3. Discussion;655
15.2.4;4. Impacts of Refugees on Sending and Receiving Communities;656
15.2.4.1;4.1. Impacts in host countries;656
15.2.4.1.1;4.1.1. Refugee camps;657
15.2.4.1.2;4.1.2. Resettlement;658
15.2.4.2;4.2. Impacts in sending countries;660
15.2.4.2.1;4.2.1. Departure of refugees;660
15.2.4.2.2;4.2.2. Return of refugees;661
15.2.5;5. Political Economy Issues;662
15.2.5.1;5.1. Asylum policies;662
15.2.5.1.1;5.1.1. Studies linking asylum policies of nations to economic concerns;663
15.2.5.1.2;5.1.2. Studies linking asylum policies of nations to external political concerns;665
15.2.5.1.3;5.1.3. The role of the UNHCR's policies in the asylum policies of nations;667
15.2.5.2;5.2. Modeling host countries policy choices;668
15.2.5.2.1;5.2.1. The role of other host nations;669
15.2.5.2.2;5.2.2. The role of the UNHCR;670
15.2.5.2.3;5.2.3. The role of the refugees;670
15.2.5.2.4;5.2.4. The role of non-refugee migrants;671
15.2.5.2.5;5.2.5. The role of administrators of the asylum policies of nations;671
15.2.6;6. Concluding Remarks;672
15.2.7;Acknowledgments;676
15.2.8;References;676
15.3;Chapter 13: Undocumented Immigration and Human Trafficking*;680
15.3.1;1. Introduction;681
15.3.2;2. Theories on Undocumented Migration;683
15.3.2.1;2.1. The migration decision;684
15.3.2.1.1;2.1.1. Models of illegal immigration;684
15.3.2.1.2;2.1.2. Empirical evidence on illegal immigration;686
15.3.2.2;2.2. Migrant self-selection;686
15.3.2.3;2.3. Immigration and the duration of stay;688
15.3.2.4;2.4. The role of smugglers;690
15.3.3;3. Enforcement Efficacy and the Political Economy of Undocumented Immigration;692
15.3.3.1;3.1. Deterrence effects of border enforcement;693
15.3.3.2;3.2. Deterrence effects of interior enforcement;694
15.3.3.3;3.3. The political economy of undocumented immigration;696
15.3.3.3.1;3.3.1. United States;697
15.3.3.3.2;3.3.2. Europe;698
15.3.3.3.3;3.3.3. Other countries;700
15.3.4;4. Costs and Benefits of Undocumented Migration;700
15.3.4.1;4.1. Macroeconomic effects on destination countries;701
15.3.4.2;4.2. Microeconomic effects on destination countries;703
15.3.4.3;4.3. Fiscal effects on destination countries;706
15.3.4.3.1;4.3.1. Federalist implications;708
15.3.4.4;4.4. Effects on migrants;708
15.3.5;5. Impacts on Origin Countries;711
15.3.5.1;5.1. Remittances;713
15.3.6;6. Public Policy and Undocumented Immigration;714
15.3.6.1;6.1. Legalization programs;714
15.3.6.1.1;6.1.1. Impact of legalization on beneficiaries;715
15.3.6.1.2;6.1.2. Other economic effects of legalization programs;716
15.3.6.1.3;6.1.3. Effects on future flows;717
15.3.6.2;6.2. Government transfer programs;718
15.3.6.3;6.3. Schooling;719
15.3.6.4;6.4. Citizenship and the children of undocumented immigrants;720
15.3.7;7. Human Trafficking;720
15.3.7.1;7.1. Models of human trafficking;721
15.3.7.2;7.2. Public policy;723
15.3.8;8. Conclusion;724
15.3.9;References;726
15.4;Chapter 14: Guest or Temporary Foreign Worker Programs;738
15.4.1;1. Summary;739
15.4.2;2. Introduction;741
15.4.2.1;2.1. Definitions and data;742
15.4.2.2;2.2. Why international migration?;743
15.4.3;3. Globalization, Differences, and Migration;745
15.4.3.1;3.1. Demographic and economic differences;745
15.4.3.2;3.2. Communications, transportation, and rights;748
15.4.4;4. Guest-Worker Programs;750
15.4.4.1;4.1. Rationales;750
15.4.4.2;4.2. Attestation versus certification;752
15.4.4.3;4.3. Contracts versus free agents;753
15.4.4.4;4.4. Distortion and dependence;754
15.4.5;5. Regional Migration Systems;757
15.4.5.1;5.1. Americas;757
15.4.5.1.1;5.1.1. Canada;757
15.4.5.1.2;5.1.2. Caribbean and Latin America;760
15.4.5.1.3;5.1.3. Mexico;762
15.4.5.2;5.2. Europe;765
15.4.5.2.1;5.2.1. From emigration to immigration;766
15.4.5.2.2;5.2.2. Freedom of movement;767
15.4.5.2.3;5.2.3. Turkey and Germany;768
15.4.5.2.4;5.2.4. EU: Europe needs migrants;769
15.4.5.2.5;5.2.5. Norway, Switzerland, and Russia;772
15.4.5.3;5.3. Asia and the Middle East;773
15.4.5.3.1;5.3.1. Singapore and Japan;774
15.4.5.3.2;5.3.2. GCC countries;775
15.4.5.3.3;5.3.3. Migrant-sending countries;776
15.4.5.3.4;5.3.4. Israel;778
15.4.5.4;5.4. Africa: refugees and migrants;778
15.4.5.5;5.5. Oceania and Pacific islands;779
15.4.6;6. Migration and Development;781
15.4.6.1;6.1. Recruitment;783
15.4.6.2;6.2. Remittances;786
15.4.6.3;6.3. Returns;788
15.4.7;7. Conclusions;791
15.4.8;References;792
16;Index;796
17;BCC;812
Chapter 1 Migration Theory*
Örn B. Bodvarsson**; Nicole B. Simpson†; Chad Sparber† ** California State University, Department of Economics, TAH 328, 6000 J Street, Sacramento, CA 95819, USA
† Colgate University, Department of Economics, 13 Oak Dr., Hamilton, NY 13346, USA Abstract
This chapter provides a comprehensive expository survey and synthesis of the theoretical determinants of migration. Early work beginning with Adam Smith, running through the pioneering research of Larry Sjaastad in the 1960s, and continuing through the end of the twentieth century established the broad themes that persist in the literature. Migration is an act of human capital investment. Whether migration occurs across internal or international borders is largely irrelevant from a theoretical standpoint, as both types of flows are primarily driven by a desire to exploit geographic variation in the return to labor. We go on to show that while the earliest models treated migration as a static decision determined by exogenous wages that vary across different levels of human capital, more recent models emphasize the endogenous and dynamic nature of the migration decision and wages. We conclude the chapter with suggestions of further extensions of the human capital/migration model. Keywords International Migration Human Capital Labor Supply JEL Classification F22 J24 J22 1 Overview
This chapter provides a comprehensive expository survey and synthesis of the theoretical literature on the determinants of migration. There are four themes to the chapter: (1) Most importantly, migration is an act of human capital investment, thus the core of migration theory is based upon the human capital investment model. People migrate if the returns to doing so outweigh the costs. (2) There is no theoretical distinction between internal (domestic) and external (international) migration, though the types and magnitudes of entry barriers vary across the two forms of migration. (3) While most of the theoretical literature focuses on migration as a static decision, more recent models have incorporated dynamic features of migration. (4) Much remains to be done to further refine the theory of international migration. The chapter is divided into three sections. Section 2 provides a narrative highlighting the migration theory literature starting with Adam Smith (1776) and ending roughly in 2000. The section is especially important for readers wanting a historical perspective into economists’ understanding of migration. It establishes the broad themes that continue to influence immigration models today, including the recognition of human capital investment as the key motive for migration. Section 3 discusses much more recent literature. Though it covers a relatively short period in the development of economic thought, this literature is quite large. The papers surveyed in this section delve more deeply into the themes identified by their predecessors by introducing more formal analytical rigor and new insights to the existing immigration framework. Two important innovations are the inclusion of endogenous and dynamic elements into the decision-making process.1 In the concluding section, we suggest further refinements of the theory. 2 From Adam Smith to the New Millennium
In this section, we survey literature beginning with Adam Smith and continuing through roughly the year 2000. The narrative is divided into three subsections. The first details pre-1960 literature on the determinants of migration. While this literature is small, it laid important groundwork for later analysis. It was not until the advent of the human capital model in the early 1960s and the pioneering work on migration by Sjaastad (1962) that the theoretical literature on the determinants of migration really began to form. Our second subsection surveys this literature, highlighting what became the core of migration theory—that migration is an act of human capital investment and that migrants respond to spatial differences in labor market opportunities net of costs. Finally, the third subsection discusses alternative motives for migration that economic researchers identified fairly early in the literature's development. 2.1 Pre-1960 literature
Adam Smith (1776) was the first economist to write on migration. In his An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Smith wrote: … the wages of labour vary more from place to place than the price of provisions. The prices of bread and butcher's meat are generally the same or very nearly the same through the greater part of the United Kingdom. These and most other things which are sold by retail, the way in which the labouring poor buy all things, are generally fully as cheap or cheaper in great towns than in the remoter parts of the country … But the wages of labour in a great town and its neighbourhood are frequently a fourth or a fifth part, twenty or five-and-twenty per cent higher than at a few miles distance. Eighteen pence a day may be reckoned the common price of labour in London and its neighbourhood. At a few miles distance it falls to eight pence, the usual price of common labour through the greater part of the low country of Scotland, where it varies a good deal less than in England. Such a difference of prices, which it seems is not always sufficient to transport a man from one parish to another, would necessarily occasion so great a transportation of the most bulky commodities, not only from one parish to another, but from one end of the kingdom, almost from one end of the world to the other, as would soon reduce them more nearly to a level. After all that has been said of the levity and inconstancy of human nature, it appears evidently from experience that a man is of all sorts of luggage the most difficult to be transported. This quote foreshadows research in the migration field that was to take place two centuries later. Smith observed that the rural/urban wage differential substantially exceeded the differential for commodity prices. Regional differences in commodity or factor prices provide opportunities for arbitrage. Intercity movements of goods (trade) arbitrages away commodity price differentials, whereas intercity movements of people (migration) arbitrages away wage differentials. Smith thus suggested that migration is a response to spatial disequilibrium in labor markets and that a key determinant of migration is spatial differences in the returns to labor supply. Hicks (1932, p. 76) made the same point one and a half centuries later when he stated that “… differences in net economic advantages, chiefly differences in wages, are the main causes of migration” (our italics). Smith's example would seem to imply that if regional differences in wages exceed regional differences in prices, migration would be plentiful and trade would be modest. Yet Smith found trade to be more intense than migration. The reason is that migration is hampered by certain barriers that trade is not. This is apparent when he states “man is of all sorts of luggage the most difficult to be transported.” Smith did not identify these migration barriers but they would surely include both direct and indirect costs such as relocation expenses, the abandonment of firm-specific assets, the sacrifice of pension rights, and the psychological costs of leaving family and friends behind. Smith astutely observed a regularity still present today—that migration flows are often small despite very substantial international wage differences. The reason is simple: international migration costs are simply too high relative to the gains. By the same reasoning, the large and persistent spatial dispersion of wages Smith saw in the UK likely resulted from low levels of migration.2 Ravenstein (1889) provided perhaps the first important analysis after Smith (1776) that significantly contributed to understanding the determinants of migration and helped lay the groundwork for much research that was to follow. He used British census data on nationality and residence along with vital statistics and immigration records to establish seven “laws” of migration. Greenwood (1997) summarizes the laws as the following: (1) most migrants move only a short distance and usually to large cities; (2) cities that grow rapidly tend to be populated by migrants from proximate rural areas and gaps arising in the rural population generate migration from more distant areas; (3) out-migration is inversely related to in-migration; (4) a major migration wave will generate a compensating counter-wave; (5) those migrating a long distance tend to move to large cities; (6) rural persons are more likely to migrate than urban persons; and (7) women are more likely to migrate than men. Zipf (1946) hypothesized that the volume of migration between two places will be in direct proportion to the product of the populations of the two locations, and inversely proportional to distance. This “P(1)P(2)/D” hypothesis—where P(1) is origin population, P(2) is destination population, and D is distance between origin and destination—came to be known as the gravity model of...
